Pigments and Binders Used in Bark Paintings by Aboriginal Artists from Across the Northern Territory and the Kimberly Region in Western Australia

ABSTRACT

Bark paintings represent a unique artform that originated in Australia and continues to this day. This paper presents a scientific investigation into both the pigments and binders used by Aboriginal artists from across the Northern Territory (NT) and the Kimberley region in Western Australia (WA) and represents the first major study dedicated to identifying these materials in samples taken from paintings. Laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) and Raman spectroscopy were used to identify the pigments in the four colors commonly associated with works by Aboriginal artists: red, yellow, black, and white. Iron oxides are used for red and yellow. Typically, kaolin is used for white and carbon or natural manganese ores are used for black, although the use of other pigments such as huntite (white) and battery black were seen in paintings from specific locations. Evidence of trade could not be established during this study; however, analysis shows that artists may use different pigments based on location and availability. A combination of FTIR and pyrolysis-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (pyrolysis-GC-MS) was utilized to investigate the presence of a binder in the paint. Plant-based materials were identified as the binder in the majority of the paintings. The use of orchid juice was common, both as a preparatory layer on the bark substrate and as a paint binder. The presence of synthetic resins was more widespread than anticipated, attributed to both conservation efforts and more modern painting practices.

KEYWORDS:

• Bark painting
• Australia
• natural pigment
• binder
• orchid juice
• LA-ICP-MS
• pyrolysis-GC-MS

Acknowledgements

The authors respectfully acknowledge and thank the Aboriginal Elders, artists, and communities, including the Andindilyakwa people from Groote Eylandt, who contributed cultural knowledge and materials to this study. The authors thank the people and institutions who helped with this research at the time it started almost a decade ago: Will Stubbs, DJ Djuwakan 2 Marika, Barayuwa Munuηurr, Kade McDonald, Nyapanyapa Yunupiηu, and Mulkun Wirrpanda from Buku-Larrηgay Mulka Centre; Steve Anderson and Gordon Pupangamirri from Tiwi Design; Cathy Cummins, Peggy Griffiths, Alan Griffiths, and Lachlan Raymond from Warringarri Aboriginal Arts; Stephen Gilchrist, Australian Studies Visiting Curator at the Harvard Art Museums; Lindy Allen, Val Brown, Samantha Hamilton, Melanie Raberts, and Dermot Henry from Museums Victoria; Chris MacAuliffe, Jay Miller, and Robyn Hovey from the Ian Potter Museum of Art, Melbourne University; Beata Tworek-Matuszkiewicz and Debbie Ward from the National Gallery of Australia; Kerry Head, Paula Dredge, and Sarah Bunn from the Art Gallery of New South Wales; Colin Macgregor, Penny Norton, and Rebecca Fisher from the Australian Museum; David Ellis, Alayne Alvis, and Jude Philp from the Macleay Museum, Sydney University; and Carl Villis, Marika Strohschnieder, and Judith Ryan from the National Gallery of Victoria. For their help with Indigenous languages the authors are grateful to Howard Morphy, Frances Morphy, and Wally Caruana. The authors also thank Kelly Domoney, Rita Giannini, and Fiona Brock from Cranfield University for performing the LA-ICP-MS analysis. Thanks to David Haig, Chris MacAuliffe, and Maria Gough from the Committee for Australian Studies at Harvard University, and His Excellency the Honorable Kim Beazley AC for their support.

The authors acknowledge the Traditional Owners of Country throughout Australia and their continuing connection to land, water, and community. The authors pay their respects to Elders past and present and extend that respect to the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples today. The authors respectfully advise that this publication includes names of, works by, and references to deceased persons.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Funding

This research was supported by the Committee for Australian Studies at Harvard University.