The exploitation of local stone in Roman times: the case of north-eastern Spain

Abstract

As in many other areas of the Roman Empire, the exploitation of stone resources for the construction of buildings, public areas, infrastructure, sculptures, inscriptions and other objects, such as sarcophagi, was a key activity in Roman Spain from the beginning of the Roman conquest. However, the study of supply areas (the quarries) has been limited to date. Taking north-eastern Spain as a case study, this article addresses the importance of identifying ancient quarries by field work at the sites and archaeometric characterization of the materials. Along with consideration of the distribution of the stone from specific quarries throughout and beyond the region, this provides a solid basis to appreciate the significance of stone exploitation as part of the process of Romanization.

Keywords:

• Roman quarries
• local stone
• extraction techniques
• quarrying strategies
• north-eastern Spain

Acknowledgements

This paper presents part of the PhD research undertaken thanks to a scholarship awarded by the Generalitat de Catalunya (2001 FI 00215) within the R + D projects Materiales lapídeos de Hispania septentrional y su comercio (HUM2005–03791) and Explotación, uso e intercambio de materias primas inorgánicas entre el Norte de Hispania, el Sur de la Galia y los puertos de Roma (HAR2008–046000/HIST), led by Prof. I. Rodà and funded by the Ministerio de Innovación y Ciencia of the Spanish Government.

Notes

With the exception of very recent works presented at national conferences (Garcia-Entero 2011; Nogales and Beltrán 2009) and at the 11th International ASMOSIA Conference, held in Tarragona in June 2009.

As already stated by Bessac, ‘the lack of remains that are possible to date during the field survey does not rule out the possibility of ancient working, only archaeological excavation allows us to be more affirmative in this respect’ (Bessac 2002: 42).

A number for each quarry, referring to those used in Figure 1, is provided next to it each time it is mentioned in the text in order to facilitate its location on the map.

These two quarrying areas – called ‘interior’ and ‘exterior’ quarries due to their location inside and outside the walled area – were the focus of an in-depth study by the team of the Museum of Archaeology of Catalonia (Museu d'Arqueologia de Catalunya-MAC) (Batista-Noguera et al. 1991); recent excavations uncovered a medieval reuse of the ‘interior’ quarry (Molist and Otiña in press).

For instance, in the territory of Tarragona many of the quarries supplied a very similar type of stone (see Table 1).

See, in particular, the quarries of Glanum (Saint-Rémy-de-Provence, southern France) (Bessac 1999: 36, fig. 26, 2003: 36–7, 2006: 21–2) or Puerto de Santa Maria (Cadiz, southern Spain) (López Amador et al. 1991).

Among all the types of local stone presented in Table 2, they are the only two that can be considered marmor, i.e. a stone with ornamental quality that takes a polish, regardless of it being a marble or not in the geological sense of the term.

Its inclusion in Gnoli's work marked a turning point in the study of this stone as later on it was not only included in reference books and catalogues of the most highly prized marmora (Antonelli 2002; Borghini 1998; Braemer 1986, 1992; Lazzarini 2004) but also scholars and researchers focused their attention on its characterization and the identification of objects made with it, as well as the location of its quarries (see, for example, [Agrave]lvarez 1985, 1992; [Agrave]lvarez et al. 2009b; Falcone and Lazzarini 1998; Mayer and Rodà 1985, 1999; Rodà 1998, 2005).

They have an essentially local distribution that was mainly centred on Dertosa and areas within easy reach such as Tarraco and Barcino (by sea) or Caesar Augusta and Arcaya (upstream along the Ebro River), yet examples of epigraphs reaching areas far away from the main routes are also available, as attested by the inscription preserved at the Iglesuela del Cid (Mayer and Rodà 1999; Gutierrez Garcia-M. 2009: 236–7; Beltrán and Gorostidi in press).

It was abundantly used in Baroque churches as well as palaces (Borghini 1998: 198; Lazzarini 2004: 118; Muñoz and Rovira 1997: 39–52).

See, for example, the late first–early second century ad pedestal of C. Clodius Chariton (RIT 457) that was reused for a dedication to Ulpia Severina (RIT 87), Emperor Aurelian's wife, or the pedestal of P. Licinus Laevinus (RIT 171), which bears three subsequent inscriptions dedicated to emperors Carus, Licinius and Constantinus (RIT 89, 94 and 95, respectively).

Then the block was torn off the substatum by using wedges. This process has been widely identified and described by many authors (see Bessac 1996; Dworakowska 1983; Röder 1957, among many others).

See note 12.

The only examples in north-eastern Spain were found at Empúries, the Maçana (Guardiola de Font-Rubó), an Iberian settlement near La Rierussa (13) and Olèrdola (14). They are all iron wedges; the first two are incidental findings but have a strong resemblance to other Roman iron wedges (see Bessac 1996: 214–16, fig. 136; Dworakowska 1983: 74–87; González Tascón 2002: 137); the third one is pre-Roman and has a very particular triangular cutting-edge (Sanahuja 1971: 66, 82, 100–1, fig. 26). The last one is still under study, and its shape has not been yet published (Molist and Otiña in press).

Underground extraction was restricted to very special cases of highly prized stone, such as the lichnites marble of Paros (Dodge 1991) or to specific conditions, such as the volcanic tufa quarries of the Rhineland (Germany) or the lapis specularis ones, near Segóbriga (Spain) (Röder 1957; Bernardez and Guisado 2002).

This inscriptions remains unpublished, but it has been interpreted by Drs I. Rodà and D. Gorostidi (pers. comm.) as ‘Q(uadratum) III’ which matches the interpretation of the inscriptions on the blocks found at Montjuïc: ‘Q(uadratum) IV’, ‘Q(uadratum) V’ and ‘Q(uadratum) VII’ (IRC IV 304).

Probably Santa Tecla quarries and the larger sites, such as El Mèdol, that supplied construction materials for the large monumental buildings in the town itself.

Only for Empuries limestone and Clots de Sant Julià sandstone.

Calcisiltite from Coves del Llorito, Coves del Pedrera as well as Mèdol stone type from undetermined quarries (El Mèdol quarry being the most likely, although other closer quarries cannot be dismissed).

In addition to the use of the same limestone that crops up at the low hill where the town was founded (Empúries limestone), the widespread use of Clots stone at Empúries dates from this period.

Barcino (modern Barcelona), which was founded c. 15–10 bc.

However, the differences may lie in the degree of precision about the dating of monuments or buildings that mark the final use of each type of stone, which directly depends on whether they have been subjected to recent comprehensive research or not. The case of the wall at Barcino is representative: it was originally dated to the third century ad, then to the fifth century ad and is currently considered to be from the first half of the fourth century ad (cf. Puig and Rodà 2007).

Yellow to golden on a dark red or purple background, resembling a gold brocade on a purple cloth (see above).