Differences between Czech and Slovak economic higher education from 1945 to 1953

Abstract

This paper discusses the development of economic higher education in Czechoslovakia from 1945 to 1953, ie before the emergence of new economic universities with the same name: University of Economics (Vysoká škola ekonomická) in Prague and Bratislava. Its aim is to determine possible similarities and differences in economic education between the Czech lands and Slovakia. Although the paper embraces the issue comprehensively, the main focus is on the comparison of two of the most important colleges, the Commercial College in Prague and Slovak College of Commerce in Bratislava. It concludes and claims that despite the Czechoslovak uniform policy in tertiary education, there were undoubtedly some national differences. Essentially, they stemmed from different networks and the number of economic schools in the Czech lands and Slovakia and from different prior traditions. Overall, Slovaks endeavoured to continue with the preceding development more than Czechs.

Keywords:

• Czechoslovakia
• economics
• higher education
• post-Second World War transition

Notes

¹ The sovietisation of higher education in a broader central European context is analysed in John Connely, Captive University: The Sovietization of East German, Czech, and Polish Higher Education, 1945–1956 (Chapel Hill and London: University of North Carolina Press, 2000) focusing on the main universities in those countries. Detailed studies of the development of higher economic education in the German Democratic Republic and Hungary are in Aleš Skřivan et al., Dějiny VŠE v Praze. I., Cesta ke vzniku VŠE v Praze: historie vyššího ekonomického školství v českých zemích v situačním kontextu ve vybraných státech střední Evropy [A History of University of Economics in Prague: A History of Higher Economic Education in Czech Lands in the Context of Selected Central European Countries] (Prague: Oeconomica, 2014).

² For the general development of Czech higher education see Pavel Urbášek and Jiří Pulec, Vysokoškolský vzdělávací systém v letech 1945–1969 [System of Higher Education 1945–1969] (Olomouc: Univerzita Palackého, 2012). For development of higher economic education in both regions see Markéta Devátá and Doubravka Olšáková, ‘Vysoká škola politických a hospodářských věd (1949–1953). Počátky marxistického vysokého školství’ [University of Political and Economic Sciences (1949–1953). The Beginnings of Marxist Higher Education], in Vědní Koncepce KSČ a její institucionalizace po roce 1948. Práce z dějin vědy sv. 23 [Science Concept of the Communist Party and its Institutionalisation after 1948. Work on the History of Science Vol. 23] (Prague: Ústav soudobých dějin Akademie věd ČR, 2010), 159–212; University of Economics in Prague, Vysoká škola ekonomická v Praze 1953–2003: minulost, přítomnost, budoucnost [University of Economics in Prague 1953–2003: Past, Present, Future] (Prague: Oeconomica, 2003); Antonie Doležalová et al., Učíme ekonomii 90 let [We Have Taught Economics for 90 Years] (Prague: Wolters Kluwer, 2011). The history of Slovak economic higher education is part of the annual publications of the University of Economics in Bratislava, eg the University of Economics in Bratislava, Pamätnica Ekonomickej univerzity v Bratislave 1940–2010 [Memorial Book of University of Economics in Bratislava 1940–2010] (Bratislava: Ekonomická univerzita, 2010).

³ Alžběta Kvasničková and Norbert Žídek, Kapitoly z dějin ekonomického myšlení [Chapters from the History of Economic Thought] (Prague: Aleko, 1991), 126.

⁴ There is more on Vilibald Mildschuch in František Vencovský, Dějiny českého ekonomického myšlení do roku 1948 [History of Czech Economic Thought up to 1948] (Brno: Nadace Univ. Masarykiana, 1997), 312–20.

⁵ National economy (national economic science) was a Central European version of political economy or economics. Up to 1948 it included a combination of neoclassical economic theory and other economic approaches, for example the German historical school as the most important.

⁶ Charles University, ‘Historie UK’ [History of Charles University], Charles University, http://www.cuni.cz/UK-374.html (accessed September 3, 2014). The German University in Prague was established by the division of the Charles-Ferdinand University in 1882 into a Czech and a German section. After Czechoslovakia was established, the Czech university returned to the name of Charles University. The German university continued to operate. In 1939, it joined a union of German universities, and was disestablished in 1945.

⁷ One of the most important tasks that stood before Czechoslovak politic elites at the beginning was to unify administrative and legal systems and transport infrastructure that differed, or did not exist at all. The long-term goal was to lower the differences in economic and social levels between the West and East of Czechoslovakia. On Czech and Slovak relations in general see for example Jan Rychlík. Češi a Slováci ve 20. století: spolupráce a konflikty 1914–1992 [Czechs and Slovaks in the Twentieth Century: Cooperation and Conflicts 1914–1992] (Prague: Vyšehrad, 2012) and for the development in interwar Czechoslovakia Zdeněk Kárník, České země v éře První republiky (1918-1938). Díl první. Vznik, budování a zlatá léta republiky (1918-1929) [Czech Lands in the Era of the First Republic. Vol. 1. Establishing, Building up and Golden Years of the Republic (1918–1929)] (Prague: Libri, 2000).

⁸ For more on the circumstances of the founding of the Commercial College see Prokop Závodský, ‘Přehled ekonomického školství na našem území’ [Survey of Economic Education in Our Territory], Acta Oeconomica Pragensia 5 (1999): 27–31 and Doležalová et al., Učíme ekonomii, 26–35, 38–42.

⁹ Závodský, ‘Přehled ekonomického školství’, 30–1.

¹⁰ Ibid., 39.

¹¹ Ten Czech universities were closed, originally just for a three-year period, but even after this period was over, the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia administration did not permit them to reopen.

¹² From the end of 1940, a number of Czech students studied at the newly established College of Commerce in Bratislava (see below). The authors are unaware of the exact numbers of these students, but since 60 students from the Protectorate studied at Bratislava universities in 1941, it can be assumed that there were not a lot of them. After 1942, a few hundred students from all fields were permitted to study at German universities in the German Reich, but these were students of medicine and technical fields. Jiří Doležal, Česká kultura za protektorátu: školství, písemnictví, kinematografie [Czech Culture during the Protectorate: Education, Writings, Cinematography] (Prague: Národní filmový archiv, 1996), 50.

¹³ Faculty of Law, Comenius University in Bratislava, ‘História katedry obchodného, finančného a hospodárskeho práva’ [History of the Department of Commercial, Financial, and Economic Law], Comenius University in Bratislava, http://www.flaw.uniba.sk/index.php?id=3774 (accessed August 30, 2014).

¹⁴ Ibid. For more on Cyril Čechrák see Vencovský, Dějiny, 320–2.

¹⁵ Faculty of Law, Comenius University, ‘História’.

¹⁶ The state was independent only formally; its existence was fully dependent on the German Third Reich during the war but it allowed certain room for autonomic behaviour in some aspects, at least much more than the fully occupied Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia.

¹⁷ University of Economics in Bratislava, Pamätnica Ekonomickej univerzity, 12.

¹⁸ ‘Program na študijný rok 1944/45’ [Study Programme for the 1944/45 School Year], fund SVŠO, University of Economics in Bratislava Archives.

¹⁹ University of Economics in Bratislava, Pamätnica Ekonomickej univerzity, 13, 30. A total of 991 students were enrolled for the 1944/1945 school year.

²⁰ For more on Rudolf Briška see Ivan Figura, Slovenský národohospodár Rudolf Briška. Osobnosť a dielo [Slovak Economist Rudolf Briška. Personality and Work] (Bratislava: Wolters Kluwer, 2012).

²¹ During the Second World War, Comenius University bore the name of Slovak University (Slovenská univerzita).

²² In the 1947/1948 school year more than 2.25 times as many students studied in Czechoslovak universities and other schools of that level compared with the 1936/1937 school year. In Czech lands the level was almost 2.20 times higher than the pre-war level and in Slovakia even 3.7 times more, according to data from the Federal Statistical Office, Historická statistická ročenka [Historical Statistical Yearbook] (Prague: SNTL, 1985), 595.

²³ The period 1945–1948 was marked by the efforts of the Communist party of Czechoslovakia (Komunistická strana Československa, KSČ) or Communist party of Slovakia (Komunistická strana Slovenska, KSS), respectively, to establish themselves on the Czechoslovak society and political scene particularly for subsequent seizure of power. While in Czech lands this was quite successful, in Slovakia the situation was more complicated and the position of Slovak Communists was weak. Therefore, the methods necessary to become the dominant political power were harsher, especially since mid-1947. For deeper analysis of Czechoslovak power struggle in the years 1945–1948 see Martin Myant, Socialism and Democracy in Czechoslovakia, 1945–1948 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981). The international context of the Czechoslovak development in post-war years is analysed in Karel Kaplan, Československo v poválečné Evropě [Czechoslovakia in Post-war Europe] (Prague: Karolinum 2007).

²⁴ In the last regular pre-war year, the school had a total of seven professors, of whom one did not return from emigration after the war, one was relieved of his role as a result of national expulsion (German professor Krejčí was also relieved for the same reason), and three teachers died during the occupation or in the period shortly after liberation.

²⁵ For more on Macek as an instructor, see Jaroslav Habr and Jan Jankovský, ‘Profesor Josef Macek’ [Professor Josef Macek], Politická ekonomie 38, no. 6 (1990): 1525–30.

²⁶ Czech Technical University in Prague, Program na školní rok 1946–1947 [Study Programme for the 1946–1947 School Year] (Prague: ČVUT, 1946), 9.

²⁷ For the total numbers of students see Federal Statistical Office, Historická statistická ročenka, 595.

²⁸ These mainly concerned the specialisation of universities; whether they were going to focus more on educating future entrepreneurs, or more on technical aspects of economics, which would correspond more to the planned economy of the time. For more see Doležalová et al., Učíme ekonomii, 46–9.

²⁹ ‘Protokoly ze schůzí profesorského sboru 1946–1947, Protokol schůze ze dne 9.10.1946’ [Minutes from the Instructors Meetings 1946–1947, A Record of the Meeting on 9 October 1946], inv. no. 308, sign. II/9, card 8, fund VŠO, Czech Technical University in Prague Archives, 2.

³⁰ Doležalová et al., Učíme ekonomii, 48–9.

³¹ Ibid., 74.

³² František Rouček, Studium na Vysoké škole politické a sociální [Study at the Political and Social University] (Prague: A. Hubínek, 1947), 78–9.

³³ Devátá and Olšáková, ‘Vysoká škola politických a hospodářských věd’, 163.

³⁴ For more on the mood amongst students see Zdislav Šulc, ‘Od reformy k disentu, od disentu k reformě’ [From Reform to Dissent, From Dissent to Reform], Politická ekonomie 54, no. 3 (1996): 295.

³⁵ ‘Program na študijný rok 1946/47’ [Study Programme for the 1946/47 School Year], fund SVŠO, University of Economics in Bratislava Archives, 3.

³⁶ ‘Program na študijný rok 1944/45’ [Study Programme for the 1944/45 School Year], fund SVŠO, University of Economics in Bratislava Archives; ‘Program na študijný rok 1946/47’ [Study Programme for the 1946/47 School Year], fund SVŠO, University of Economics in Bratislava Archives. Compared with the 1944/1945 school year, there was a reduction in basic payments from 700 Czechoslovak crowns (Kčs) to 500 Kčs, with fees for foreigners reduced from an original 2000 to 1000 Kčs. Other fees were required in addition to tuition fees, which came to almost 100 Kčs after their reduction (almost 140 Kčs for foreigners), plus fees for exercising which ranged in 1946/1947 from 20 to 100 Kčs.

³⁷ University of Economics in Bratislava, Pamätnica Ekonomickej univerzity, 7. The rector was elected for a one-year period.

³⁸ Ibid., 30. In the first post-war academic year, 1495 students studied at SVŠO, and in subsequent years numbers fell continuously.

³⁹ Viktor Pavlenda, ‘Socialistická vývojová cesta VŠE v Bratislave’ [Socialist Path of Development of University of Economics in Bratislava], in Sborník Vysokej školy ekonomickej 1961 [Anthology of the University of Economics in 1961], ed. Ján Ferianc, Felo Hutník and Hviezdoň Kočtúch (Bratislava: Slovenské pedagogické nakladatelstvo, 1961), 12.

⁴⁰ Faculty of Law, Comenius University, ‘História’.

⁴¹ There is a vast amount of mostly Czech literature on the February Coup and subsequent development of Czechoslovakia under Communist rule. One of the most recent publications is Kevin McDermott, Communist Czechoslovakia, 1945–89: A Political and Social History (London and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015) with a list of references of relevant literature in Czech as well as in English.

⁴² František Vencovský, Karel Engliš (Brno: Albert, 1993), 28–9.

⁴³ Vladimír Kadlec, Nekamenujte economy [Do Not Stone Economists] (Prague: Samizdat, 1984), 122. In his memoirs, Kadlec described this period shortly after the February Coup as the happiest period of his time at Charles University’s Faculty of Law for its polemical nature, despite the fact that students were clear in their disapproval of the removal of Engliš.

⁴⁴ Doležalová et al., Učíme ekonomii, 49.

⁴⁵ ‘Protokoly ze schůzí profesorského sboru 1947–1948, Protokol schůze ze dne 2.3.1948’ [Minutes from the Instructors Meetings 1947–1948, A Record of the Meeting on 2 March 1948], inv. no. 308, sign. II/9, card 8, fund VŠO, Czech Technical University in Prague Archives.

⁴⁶ ‘Protokoly ze schůzí profesorského sboru 1947–1948, Dopis AV VŠVH ze dne 4.3.1948’ [Minutes from the Instructors Meetings 1946–1947, A Letter of the Action Committee at VŠVH, 4 March 1948], inv. no. 308, sign. II/9, card 8, fund VŠO, Czech Technical University in Prague Archives.

⁴⁷ ‘Protokoly ze schůzí profesorského sboru 1947–1948, Protokol schůze ze dne 2.3.1948’ [Minutes from the Instructors Meetings 1947–1948, A Record of the Meeting on 2 March 1948], inv. no. 308, sign. II/9, card 8, fund VŠO, Czech Technical University in Prague Archives.

⁴⁸ Ota Šik, ‘Reformismus v politické ekonomii’ [Reformism in Political Economy], Nová mysl 3, no. 4–5 (1949): 363–98. Josef Macek was not the only subject of such an attack by Šik. In his article, ‘O poklonkování před buržoasní ekonomií’ [On Kowtowing to the Bourgeois Economy] published in the same periodical a month earlier, he had attacked Jan Jankovský in a similar manner, as well as one of the founders of post-war national accounting in Czechoslovakia, Miloš Stádník.

⁴⁹ Doležalová et al., Učíme ekonomii, 54, 78. Students who began to study at VŠVH before this act was ratified were allowed to complete their studies; however, changes to teaching would continue to occur in order to correspond to the new concept of higher education in the field of social sciences as practised at the University of Political Science and Economics. The final VŠVH students graduated in spring 1952, and the final graduates of business science completed their studies in June 1953.

⁵⁰ Ibid., 76. About 30 university employees were removed from their roles during March 1948.

⁵¹ Devátá and Olšáková, ‘Vysoká škola politických a hospodářských věd’, 164.

⁵² ‘Hospodářská fakulta, přednášky, zkoušky, učební plán. Hodnocení letního semestru šk. r. 1950/51 na hosp. fakultě VŠPS’ [Economic Faculty, Lectures, Exams, Study Plan. Evaluation of the Summer Semester of the 1950/51 School Year at the Economic Faculty of VŠPS], inv. no. 18.1950–51, card 20, fund VŠPHV, Prague City Archives, 2.

⁵³ Devátá and Olšáková, ‘Vysoká škola politických a hospodářských věd’, 169.

⁵⁴ Political economy for example consisted of two main parts. Political economy, in which Marx and Lenin’s economic theory and analysis were taught, and political economy of socialism that was identified with a Stalinist arrangement of the economy. It also dealt with specific development of transition periods in other socialist countries to the Soviet economic system. Marxist political economy was based mainly on Karl Marx’s ‘Capital’ and Vladimir Lenin’s ‘Imperialism, The Highest Stage of Capitalism’. The political economy of socialism relied on readings of Soviet economic articles, brochures, speeches of Soviet and Czechoslovak Communist leaders, and government and party resolutions. The aim of history of economic thought courses was to promote Soviet, Marxist economic thought and to refute Western or standard economic theories entirely.

⁵⁵ Ondrej Peter, ‘Pedagogická práca za 15 rokov od oslobodenia’ [Pedagogical Work for 15 Years since the Liberation], in Sborník Vysokej školy (see note 39), 20–1. Amongst these, we would note the demand for ‘democratisation’ of universities, which, however, was understood not just as a strengthening of the say of students and other university workers in their management and direction, but also as the purging of staff and strengthening of cadres of workers at universities. Furthermore, the reform of universities should not have been an obstacle on the way to socialism, and should have been in accordance with real life.

⁵⁶ Pavlenda, ‘Socialistická vývojová cesta’, 13.

⁵⁷ ‘Zápisnice profesorského sboru SVŠO za štud. r. 1947–48, Zápisnica zo VII. zasadnutia profesorského sboru konaného 17.3.1948’ [Minute-Book of Instructors of SVŠO for the 1947–48 School Year, A Record from the 7th Meeting of the Instructors Held on 17 March 1948], fund SVŠO, University of Economics in Bratislava Archives, 5.

⁵⁸ ‘Zápisnice profesorského sboru SVŠO za štud. r. 1947–48, Zápisnica z mimoriadneho zasadnutia profesorského sboru konaného 8.9.1948’ [Minute-Book of Instructors of SVŠO for the 1947–48 School Year, A Record from the Special Meeting of Instructors Held on 8 September 1948], fund SVŠO, University of Economics in Bratislava Archives.

⁵⁹ ‘Výročná zpráva ZO KSS na VŠVH v Bratislave’ [Annual Report of ZO KSS at VŠVH in Bratislava] (undated, probably January 1950), card Správy o činnosti ZO KSS na SVŠO, VŠVH, Návrhy činnosti, plány 1949–1954, Správy o činnosti 1950 [Reports on Activity of ZO KSS at SVŠO, VŠVH, Proposals of Activity, Plans 1949–1954, Reports on Activity in 1950], fund SVŠO, University of Economics in Bratislava Archives, 14. Peter claims that during the university purges about 100 students were expelled, and a further 100 were sent to work in factories for a year and a half. No time details are given here, however. Peter, ‘Pedagogická práca’, 21.

⁶⁰ ‘Zápisnice profesorského sboru SVŠO za štud. r. 1947–48, Zasadnutie komisie ustavenej pre vypracovánie návrhov týkajúcich sa reformy organizácie školy a štúdia SVŠO, 10.5.1948’ [Minute-Book of Instructors of SVŠO for the 1947–48 School Year, A Meeting of the Commission Established for Elaboration of Proposals on the Reform of the Organisation and the Study Programmes of the SVŠO, 10 May 1948], fund SVŠO, University of Economics in Bratislava Archives, 1–2.

⁶¹ ‘Zápisnice fakultného sboru SVŠO za štud. r. 1948–49. Zápis zo spoločnej porady, ktorú uskutočnily VŠVH a SVŠO dňa 27.4.1949’ [Minute-Book of the Faculty of SVŠO for the1948–49 School Year, A Record from the Joint Meeting Held by VŠVH and SVŠO on 27 April 1949], fund SVŠO, University of Economics in Bratislava Archives, 3.

⁶² Ibid., 2. Considerations were made of extending this to nine semesters.

⁶³ ‘Zápisnice fakultného sboru SVŠO za štud. r. 1948–49. Zasadnutia komisie pre reformu štúdia na SVŠO dňa 6.5.1949’ [Minute-Book of the Faculty of SVŠO for the 1948–49 School Year, A Meeting of the Commission for the Study Reform at SVŠO on 6 May 1949], fund SVŠO, University of Economics in Bratislava Archives, 3. It appears then that the professorial staff did not express much enthusiasm for this reform.

⁶⁴ Ibid., 5.

⁶⁵ The agreement contained, as well as complementarity of specialisations, a strengthening of the teaching of political economy at SVŠO at the expense of geography, and goods theories, which was to be taught more at VŠHV. Further, the two schools agreed on the same number of teaching hours of Russian language. Also, the agreement specified conditions for commercial engineering study in order to teach economic subjects at secondary schools. It was necessary to graduate from one of the universities, as well as to complete courses of education at Charles University’s Faculty of Education, or the Slovak University. ‘Zápisnice fakultného sboru SVŠO za štud. r. 1948–49. Zápis o pracovní poradě zástupců SVŠO v Bratislavě a VŠVH v Praze ve věci unifikace studia na obou školách 9.6.1949 v Praze’ [Minute-Book of the Faculty of SVŠO for the 1948–49 School Year, A Record on the Working Meeting of SVŠO in Bratislava and VŠVH in Prague Deputies on Study Unification of both Universities on 9 June 1949 in Prague], fund SVŠO, University of Economics in Bratislava Archives, 2–3.

⁶⁶ ‘Zápisnice fakultného sboru SVŠO za štud. r. 1948–49. Zápis zo spoločnej porady, ktorú uskutočnily VŠVH a SVŠO dňa 27.4.1949’ [Minute-Book of the Faculty of SVŠO for the 1948–49 School Year, A Record from the Joint Meeting Held by VŠVH and SVŠO on 27 April 1949], fund SVŠO, University of Economics in Bratislava Archives, 2. The name change was also part of the discussions on university reform between Prague’s VŠVH and SVŠO. Originally the name the Slovak University of Economic Sciences (Slovenská vysoká škola hospodárskych vied) was proposed, but in the end the name was more close to that of Prague. In contrast to Prague’s VŠVH, the change did not occur through a revolutionary manner, but through the standard legislative process after more than a year of discussions.

⁶⁷ ‘Zápisnice fakultného sboru SVŠO za štud. r. 1948–49. Zasadnutie komisie pre reformu štúdia na VŠHV dňa 16.7.1949’ [Minute-Book of the Faculty of SVŠO for the 1948–49 School Year, A Meeting of the Commission for the Study Reform at VŠVH on 16 July 1949], fund SVŠO, University of Economics in Bratislava Archives.

⁶⁸ University of Economics in Bratislava, Pamätnica Ekonomickej univerzity, 21.

⁶⁹ According to them, the reform had been led by professors who were attempting to defend their jobs and were not taking into account the political and economic needs of modern life, and the content and structure of subjects had not changed in comparison with the old SVŠO. ‘Zpráva o situácii na Vysokej škole hospodárskych vied’ [Report on a Situation at the University of Economic Sciences] (undated, probably June 1950), card Správy o činnosti ZO KSS na SVŠO, VŠHV, Návrhy činnosti, plány 1949–1954, Správy o činnosti 1950 [Reports on Activity of ZO KSS at SVŠO, Proposals of Activity, Plans 1949–1954, Reports on Activity in 1950], fund SVŠO, University of Economics in Bratislava Archives, 6.

⁷⁰ Ibid., 4.

⁷¹ University of Economics in Bratislava, Pamätnica Ekonomickej univerzity, 21.

⁷² Ibid., 22.

⁷³ Ibid., 22.

⁷⁴ For example, ‘Výročná zpráva za funkčné obdobie od februára 1951 do februára 1952’ [Annual Report for a Period from February 1951 to February 1952], card Správy o činnosti ZO KSS na SVŠO, VŠHV, Návrhy činnosti, plány 1949–1954, Správy o činnosti 1950 [Reports on Activity of ZO KSS at SVŠO, VŠVH, Proposals of Activity, Plans 1949–1954, Reports on Activity in 1950], fund SVŠO, University of Economics in Bratislava Archives.

⁷⁵ Peter, ‘Pedagogická práca’, 22.

⁷⁶ There was interest in teaching at the university, however. In terms of the history of Czech economic thought, it is interesting that Jaroslav Habr of the Czechoslovak Labour Institute applied for a position of an internal professor at VŠVH, as a major figure in the debate on economic policy in the years 1945–1948, and was forced to withdraw from public debating after 1948. ‘Korešpondencia ZO KSS pri SVŠO a VŠHV 1948, 1949, 1950–52, Zoznam žiadaných interných síl, 4.6.1951’ [Correspondence of ZO KSS at SVŠO and VŠVH 1948, 1949, 1950–52, A List of Internal Workforce Required, 4 June 1951], fund SVŠO, University of Economics in Bratislava Archives.

⁷⁷ University of Economics in Bratislava, Pamätnica Ekonomickej univerzity, 24. If we count the Faculty of General Economics as one study field. Here, study fields were introduced (political economy and national economic planning) from the following academic year, 1954/1955.

⁷⁸ Ibid., 24.

⁷⁹ Faculty of Law, Comenius University, ‘História’.