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ABSTRACT
In Ethiopia, both Christians and Muslims interpreted the Covid-19 pandemic as God’s punishment for sin. Prayer, fasting, and congregating in houses of worship therefore became important as means to plead God to act; practices that deviated from the biomedically informed efforts promoted by the Ethiopian government. This article explores these religious perceptions and practices and how they were negotiated in relation to official public health policies. At first glance, this case could serve as a typical example of how a government’s secular policies are pitted against a ‘religiously-inclined’ population. However, the religious interpretations did not prevent people from recognizing the value of public-health informed mitigating efforts, and neither these efforts immune from ideas about divine agency. Therefore, the Ethiopian case serves to illustrate how seemingly demarcated epistemes, or imagined separate domains, are more open to exchange and interaction than commonly assumed.
Acknowledgements
The authors want to thank the two anonymous reviewers for valuable feedback on an earlier draft of this article. They also want to thank the field researches for their efforts in data collection.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes
1 “Inter-religious Council of Ethiopia Declares Month-long National Prayer to Curb Coronavirus.” 2020. United Religions Initiative, March 20. https://www.uri.org/uri-story/20200420-inter-religious-council-ethiopia-declares-month-long-national-prayer-curb (accessed December 12, 2020).
2 Similar interpretations have appeared in African contexts in relation to the HIV pandemic, blaiming homosexuals, and to a lesser extent in connection with the Ebola epidemic. See Becker and Geissler (Citation2009).
3 The project Covid-19 Impact Tracing in Ethiopia: Social, Economic, Political, and Security Ramifications was commissioned and funded by USAID and carried out by the research and advisory company Oslo Analytica, led by Marit Tolo Østebø and Kjetil Tronvoll.
4 Recent decades have seen the arrival of numerous Pentecostal churches which increasingly have attracted members from the EOC (Haustein Citation2011).
5 In 2004, there were 291 Christian denominations, churches, and ministries registered with the Ministry of Justice (Haustein and Østebø Citation2011).
6 Endris Mekonnen. “Proclamation finally Decrees Equality for Ethiopian Muslims.” 2020. Ethiopia Insights. https://www.ethiopia-insight.com/2020/09/16/proclamation-finally-decrees-equality-for-ethiopian-muslims/ (accessed December 1, 2020).
7 This refers to when Prophet Muhammad sent some of his earlier followers to Axum in 615 CE to avoid persecution in Mecca.
8 This refers to a conference called “Pentecostalism of Public Spheres in Africa and China” held at Leeds University in March 2014. See Adriaan Van Klinken. “Opening Remarks.” Adriaan Van Klinken. https://adriaanvanklinken.wordpress.com/2014/03/17/the-pentecostalisation-of-public-spheres/ (accessed June 9, 2021).
9 Field report from Bale, Oromia region, June 26, 2020.
10 Field-reports from Adigrat, Tigray region June 16, 2020; Bahr Dar, Amhara region, June 16, 2020; Interview, Gimbi, Oromia region, July 3, 2020; Interview, Nekemte, Oromia region, July 5, 2020.
11 Interview, Axum, Tigray region, beginning July, 2020.
12 Interview, Axum, Tigray Region, June 20, 2020.
13 Interview, Adigrat, Tigray region, July 1, 2020.
14 Interview, Adigrat, Tigray region, June 27, 2020.
15 Field-report, Gondar, Amhara region, June 22, 2020.
16 Interview, Mekelle, Tigray region, July 4, 2020.
17 Interview, Mota, Amhara Region, June 29, 2020.
18 “Religious Institutions Expediting Fight against Covid-19.” 2020. Ethiopian Press Agency, March 28. https://www.press.et/english/?p=20244# (accessed October 10, 2020).
19 Interview, Axum, Tigray region, June 26, 2020.
20 Interview, Axum, Tigray region, July 2, 2020.
21 Interview, Adigrat Tigray region, July 1, 2020.
22 “Covid-19: Ethiopia Bans Gathering of More than Four People.” 2020. Ethiopian Monitor, April 12. https://ethiopianmonitor.com/2020/04/12/covid-19-ethiopia-bans-gatherings-of-more-than-four-people/ (accessed October 12, 2020)
23 Interviews, Adigrat, Tigray region, June 27, 2020; Haramaya, Oromia region, July 2, 2020.
24 Interview, Gondar, Amhara region, July 1, 2020.
25 St. Tekle Haymanot (ca. 1215–1313) was an Ethiopian monk and is now an important indigenous saint within the Ethiopian Orthodox Church.
26 Field-report, Mekelle, Tigray region, June 16, 2020.
27 Interview, Gimbi, Oromia region, July 3, 2020.
28 Interview, Mekele, Tigray region, July 4, 2020.
29 Interviews, Bahr Dar, Amhara region, July 1, 2020; Debre Markos, Amhara region, July 2, 2020.
30 Interviews, Gojam, Amhara region, July 6, 2020; Kelela, Amhara region, July 8, 2020; Gondar, Amhara region, June 29, 2020.
31 Interview, Gondar, Amhara region, June 29, 2020. The idea about the Illuminate is connected to conspiracy theories about a world-wide secret society which, by planting agents in strategic positions, is aiming to create a new world order.
32 Simon Marks. 2020. “Worshippers in Ethiopia Defy Ban on Large Gatherings Despite Coronavirus.” VOA News, March 26. https://www.voanews.com/science-health/coronavirus-outbreak/worshippers-ethiopia-defy-ban-large-gatherings-despite (accessed October 12, 2020).
33 Interview, Haramaya, Oromia region, July 2, 2020.
34 Interview, Adigrat, Tigray region, June 27, 2020.
35 “Ethiopian Orthodox Church Reopens Worship Houses amid Covid-19 Infections.” 2020. Agence de Pesse Africaine, May 15. http://apanews.net/en/news/ethiopian-orthodox-church-reopens-worship-houses-amid-covid-19-infection (accessed October 12, 2020).
36 Field report, Gondar, Amhara region, July 24, 2020.
37 Interview, Haramaya, Oromia region, July 2, 2020.
38 Interview, Bahr Dar, Amhara region, June 30. 2020.
39 Interview, Nekemte, Oromia region, July 5, 2020.
40 Fieldnotes, Gondar, Amhara region, July 24, 2020.
41 Interview, Bahr Dar, Amhara region, July 3, 2020.
42 “Religious Institutions Expediting Fight against Covid-19.” 2020. Ethiopian Press Agency, March 28. https://www.press.et/english/?p=20244# (accessed October 10, 2020).
43 Interview, Bahr Dar, Amhara region, July 3, 2020.
44 Field-report, Shire, Tigray region, July 15, 2020.
45 “Muslims, Christians in Ethiopia Join Fight against Covid-19.” 2020. Daily Sabah, April 15. https://www.dailysabah.com/world/africa/muslims-christians-in-ethiopia-join-fight-against-covid-19 (accessed October 12, 2020).
46 “Space for Faith-Based Organizations in Times of Covid-19: Examples from Ethiopia, Indonesia and the Global Arena.” Civic Engagement Alliance, July 2020. https://civicengagementalliance.org/content/6-resources/space-for-faith-based-organizations-3.pdf (accessed February 15, 2021).
47 “Inter-religious Council of Ethiopia Declares Month-long National Prayer to Curb Coronavirus.” 2020. United Religions Initiative, March 20. https://www.uri.org/uri-story/20200420-inter-religious-council-ethiopia-declares-month-long-national-prayer-curb (accessed December 12, 2020).
48 “Space for Faith-Based Organizations in Times of Covid-19: Examples from Ethiopia, Indonesia and the Global Arena.” Civic Engagement Alliance, July 2020. https://civicengagementalliance.org/content/6-resources/space-for-faith-based-organizations-3.pdf (accessed February 15, 2021).
49 The video is available on YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RUlu9Y2oRTI (accessed October 10, 2020).
50 “Fact and Fiction”, World Health Organization, 2020. https://www.who.int/southeastasia/outbreaks-and-emergencies/novel-coronavirus-2019/fact-or-fiction (accessed November 15, 2020).
51 Fieldnotes, Adigrat, Tigray region June 16, 2020.
52 Interview, Gimbi, Oromia region, July 3, 2020.
53 Interview, Haramaya, Oromia region, July 2, 2020.
54 Interview, Azezo, Amhara region, June, 27, 2020. Colorful, decorated umbrellas are usually used Orthodox priests and to protect the tabot during processions. Is symbolizes the protective canopy used to protect the Ark of the Covenant when it was brought from Jerusalem to Ethiopia.
55 Interview, Adigrat, Tigray region, June, 19, 2020.
56 Interview, Axum, Tigray region, July, 2020
57 Interview, Adigrat, Tigray region, July 2, 2020.
58 Peter Beaumont: “Tanzania’s President Shrugs off Covid-19 Risk after Sending Fruit for ‘tests’”. 2020. The Guardian, May 19. https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2020/may/19/tanzanias-president-shrugs-off-covid-19-risk-after-sending-fruit-for-tests (accessed October 9, 2020).
Additional information
Notes on contributors
Terje Østebø
Terje Østebø is the chair of the Department of Religion and a Professor at the Center for African Studies and the Department of Religion, University of Florida. He is also the founding director of the Center for Global Islamic Studies, University of Florida. His research interests are religion in Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa, religion and politics, and ethnicity in Ethiopia.
Kjetil Tronvoll
Kjetil Tronvoll is professor of peace and conflict studies at Bjørknes University College, Oslo. He holds a PhD in political anthropology from LSE. Tronvoll has conducted long-term anthropological fieldwork in Eritrea, Ethiopia and Zanzibar and has published extensively on issues of war, peace / reconciliation, democratization, human rights / transitional justice.
Marit Tolo Østebø
Marit Tolo Østebø is an Assistant Professor at the Department of Anthropology at the University of Florida. She has extensive field-research experience from Ethiopia, where she prior to pursuing an academic career, was involved in humanitarian and development work. Her research is situated in the intersection of anthropology of policy, gender and development, science and technology studies and global health. She is the author of Village Gone Viral. Understanding the Spread of Policy Models in a Digital Age (Stanford University Press, 2021).