Abstract
THE LANDSCAPE CONTEXT of the early 9th-century monument known as the Pillar of Eliseg is interrogated here for the first time with GIS-based analysis and innovative spatial methodologies. Our interpretation aims to move beyond regarding the Pillar as a prominent example of early medieval monument reuse and a probable early medieval assembly site. We argue that the location and topographical context of the cross and mound facilitated the monument’s significance as an early medieval locus of power, faith and commemoration in a contested frontier zone. The specific choice of location is shown to relate to patterns of movement and visibility that may have facilitated and enhanced the ceremonial and commemorative roles of the monument. By shedding new light on the interpretation of the Pillar of Eliseg as a node of social and religious aggregation and ideological power, our study has theoretical and methodological implications for studying the landscape contexts of early medieval stone monuments.
Résumé
Positionnement du « pilier d’Eliseg » : mouvement, visibilité et mémoire dans le paysage du début du Moyen-Âge par Patricia Murrieta-Flores et Howard Williams
Le paysage dans lequel s’inscrit le monument du début du 9ème siècle dénommé « pilier d’Eliseg » est examiné ici pour la première fois à l’aide d’une analyse SIG et de méthodologies spatiales innovatrices. Notre interprétation cherche à aller au-delà de la considération du « pilier » en tant qu’exemple proéminent de réemploi d’un monument et site probable d’assemblée au début du Moyen-Âge. Nous avançons que l’emplacement et le contexte topographique de la croix et du monticule étaient significatifs d’un monument qui incarnait le locus du pouvoir, de la foi et de la commémoration au début du Moyen-Âge, dans une zone frontalière contestée. Nous montrons que le choix de cet emplacement spécifique se rapporte aux schémas de mouvement et de visibilité qui ont pu faciliter et renforcer les rôles cérémoniel et commémoratif du monument. En apportant un nouvel éclairage à l’interprétation du « pilier d’Eliseg » comme nœud d’agrégation sociale et religieuse et de pouvoir idéologique, notre étude a des implications théoriques et méthodologiques pour l’exploration du paysage dans lequel s’inscrivent les monuments de pierre du début du Moyen-Âge.
Zusammenfassung
Die Säule von Eliseg und ihr Standort: Bewegung, Sichtigkeit und Reminiszenz in der Landschaft des frühen Mittelalters von Patricia Murrieta-Flores und Howard Williams
Der landschaftliche Kontext des als Säule von Eliseg bekannten Monuments aus dem frühen 9. Jahrhundert wird hier erstmals mithilfe GIS-gestützter Analysen und innovativer, räumlich orientierter Methodik untersucht. Unsere Interpretation geht über die traditionelle Einstufung der Säule von Eliseg als prominentes Beispiel eines frühmittelalterlichen Monuments und wahrscheinlicher Versammlungsstätte hinaus. Es wird dargelegt, dass sowohl der Standort als auch der topografische Kontext des Kreuzes und Erdwalls auf die Bedeutung des Monuments als frühmittelalterlicher Ort der Macht, des Glaubens und des Gedenkens in einem umkämpften Grenzgebiet hindeuten. Die spezifische Standortwahl wird zu Bewegungs- und Sichtigkeitsmustern in Beziehung gesetzt, welche die Rolle des Monuments als zeremoniellen Ort und Gedenkstätte unterstreichen und bestätigen. Die Interpretation der Säule von Eliseg als Zentrum sozialer und religiöser Aggregation sowie ideologischer Macht wird neu beleuchtet, wobei die Studie theoretische sowie methodologische Implikationen für die Erforschung frühmittelalterlicher Steinmonumente in ihrem landschaftlichen Kontext aufweist.
Riassunto
La collocazione della Colonna di Eliseg: lo spostamento, la visibilità e la memoria nel paesaggio altomedievale di Patricia Murrieta-Flores e Howard Williams
Si esamina qui per la prima volta il contesto paesaggistico del monumento del IX secolo noto come la Colonna di Eliseg facendo ricorso all’analisi basata sul sistema informativo geografico (GIS Geographic Information System) e su metodologie spaziali innovative. La nostra interpretazione si prefigge di andare al di là della considerazione che la colonna costituisce un importante esempio di riutilizzazione di un monumento altomedievale e probabilmente un sito di riunione nell’Alto Medioevo. Noi sosteniamo che la posizione e il contesto topografico del tumulo con la croce hanno facilitato l’aspetto significativo del monumento in quanto località di potere, di fede e di commemorazione in una contesa zona di frontiera. Si dimostra qui come la precisa scelta della località sia in relazione a schemi di spostamenti e di visibilità che possono avere favorito e sottolineato il ruolo cerimoniale e commemorativo del monumento. Dando nuova luce all’interpretazione della Colonna di Eliseg come centro di aggregazione sociale e religiosa e di potere ideologico, il nostro studio ha implicazioni teoretiche e metodologiche per l’esame dei contesti paesaggistici dei monumenti in pietra altomedievali.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to the HER of Clwyd-Powys Archaeological Trust for supplying details of archaeological sites in the vicinity of the Pillar of Eliseg. We would like to thank Rhiannon Comeau, Nancy Edwards, Dai Morgan Evans, Tim Malim, Keith Ray, Marion Shiner, Gary Robinson and Rachel Swallow for guidance and critical comments. All arguments and errors remain the authors’ responsibility. The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Research Council under the European Union’s Seventh Framework Programme (FP/2007-2013) ERC grant ‘The Past in its Place’ (agreement no 284085).
Notes
25 Semple and Sanmark Citation2013, 528–32; parallels might be found in the work of Elizabeth FitzPatrick on the relationship between assembly places, ancient monuments and landscapes of varied geologies making them attractive for seasonal hunting: Fitzpatrick Citation2012; Citation2015.
36 For a view of assembly places as zones in the early medieval Welsh landscape, see Comeau Citation2014, 278–81. See Seaman (Citation2016, 41) regarding the twinning of ecclesiastical and hilltop sites which might provide parallels to the association of the Pillar with Castell Dinas Brân and Llangollen.
71 While admitting the challenges of confirming the locations of gateways through Offa’s Dyke, Ray and Bapty (Citation2016, 228–51) propose convincing potential instances.
Williams, H, Kirton, J and Gondek, M (eds) 2015a, Early Medieval Stone Monuments: Materiality, Biography, Landscape, Woodbridge: Boydell and Brewer. Back Danielsson, I-M 2015, ‘Walking down memory lane: rune-stones as mnemonic agents in the landscapes of late Viking-Age Scandinavia’, in Williams et al 2015a, 62–86. Coatsworth, E 2015, ‘Landmarks of faith: crosses and free-standing stones’, in Hyer and Owen-Crocker, 117–36. Crouwers, I 2015, ‘The biographies and audiences of late Viking-Age and medieval stone crosses and cross-decorated stones in western Norway’, in Williams et al 2015a, 149–82. Edwards, N 2001, ‘Early-medieval inscribed stones and stone sculpture in Wales: context and function’, Medieval Archaeol 49, 15–39.10.1179/med.2001.45.1.15 Hall, M 2015, ‘Lifeways in stone: memories and matter-reality in early medieval sculpture from Scotland’, in Williams et al 2015a, 182–215. Reynolds, A and Langlands, A 2011, ‘Travel as communication: a consideration of overland journeys in Anglo-Saxon England’, World Archaeol 43:3, 410–27.10.1080/00438243.2011.615158 Williams, H 2011, ‘Remembering elites: early medieval stone crosses as commemorative technologies’, in L Boye, P Ethelberg and L Heidemann Lutz et al (eds), Arkæologi i Slesvig/Archäologie in Schleswig. Sonderband ‘Det 61. Internationale Sachsensymposion 2010’ Haderslev, Danmark, Neumünster: Wachholtz, 13–32. Williams, H, Kirton, J and Gondek, M 2015b, ‘Introduction: stones in substance, space and time’, in Williams et al 2015a, 1–34. Edwards, N 2001, ‘Early-medieval inscribed stones and stone sculpture in Wales: context and function’, Medieval Archaeol 49, 15–39.10.1179/med.2001.45.1.15 Edwards, N 2008, ‘The Pillar of Eliseg’, in D H Evans, Valle Crucis Abbey, revs edn, Cadw: Welsh Assembly Government, 53–6. Edwards, N 2009, ‘Rethinking the Pillar of Eliseg’, Antiq J 89, 143–77.10.1017/S0003581509000018 Edwards, N 2013a, Corpus of Early Medieval Inscribed Stones and Stone Sculpture in Wales, Volume 3, North Wales, Cardiff: University of Wales Press. Edwards, N 2013b, The early medieval sculpture of North Wales: context, wealth and patronage, in J Hawkes (ed), Making Histories. Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Insular Art, York 2011, Donington: Shaun Tyas, 50–64. Edwards, N 2009, ‘Rethinking the Pillar of Eliseg’, Antiq J 89, 143–77.10.1017/S0003581509000018 Edwards, N 2013a, Corpus of Early Medieval Inscribed Stones and Stone Sculpture in Wales, Volume 3, North Wales, Cardiff: University of Wales Press. Charles-Edwards, T M 2013, Wales and the Britons, 350–1064, The History of Wales vol 1, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Edwards, N 2009, ‘Rethinking the Pillar of Eliseg’, Antiq J 89, 143–77.10.1017/S0003581509000018 Edwards, N 2013a, Corpus of Early Medieval Inscribed Stones and Stone Sculpture in Wales, Volume 3, North Wales, Cardiff: University of Wales Press. Williams, H 2011, ‘Remembering elites: early medieval stone crosses as commemorative technologies’, in L Boye, P Ethelberg and L Heidemann Lutz et al (eds), Arkæologi i Slesvig/Archäologie in Schleswig. Sonderband ‘Det 61. Internationale Sachsensymposion 2010’ Haderslev, Danmark, Neumünster: Wachholtz, 13–32. Edwards, N 2009, ‘Rethinking the Pillar of Eliseg’, Antiq J 89, 143–77.10.1017/S0003581509000018 Edwards, N, Robinson, G, Williams, H and Evans, D M 2011, ‘The Pillar of Eliseg Llantysilio, incomplete inscribed cross and cairn’, Archaeol Wales 50, 57–9. Edwards, N, Robinson, G and Williams, H 2013, ‘Llantysilio, The Pillar of Eliseg’, Archaeol Wales 52, 199–201. Edwards, N, Robinson, G and Williams, H 2014, ‘Llantysilio, The Pillar of Eliseg’, Archaeol Wales 53, 186–9. Edwards, N 2001, ‘Early-medieval inscribed stones and stone sculpture in Wales: context and function’, Medieval Archaeol 49, 15–39.10.1179/med.2001.45.1.15 Edwards, N 2009, ‘Rethinking the Pillar of Eliseg’, Antiq J 89, 143–77.10.1017/S0003581509000018 Edwards, N 2013a, Corpus of Early Medieval Inscribed Stones and Stone Sculpture in Wales, Volume 3, North Wales, Cardiff: University of Wales Press. Edwards, N 2013b, The early medieval sculpture of North Wales: context, wealth and patronage, in J Hawkes (ed), Making Histories. Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Insular Art, York 2011, Donington: Shaun Tyas, 50–64. Williams, H 2011, ‘Remembering elites: early medieval stone crosses as commemorative technologies’, in L Boye, P Ethelberg and L Heidemann Lutz et al (eds), Arkæologi i Slesvig/Archäologie in Schleswig. Sonderband ‘Det 61. Internationale Sachsensymposion 2010’ Haderslev, Danmark, Neumünster: Wachholtz, 13–32. Williams, H 2006, Death and Memory in Early Medieval Britain, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9780511489594 Williams, H 2011, ‘Remembering elites: early medieval stone crosses as commemorative technologies’, in L Boye, P Ethelberg and L Heidemann Lutz et al (eds), Arkæologi i Slesvig/Archäologie in Schleswig. Sonderband ‘Det 61. Internationale Sachsensymposion 2010’ Haderslev, Danmark, Neumünster: Wachholtz, 13–32. Davies, W 1982, Wales in the Early Middle Ages, Leicester: University of Leicester Press. Edwards, N 2009, ‘Rethinking the Pillar of Eliseg’, Antiq J 89, 143–77.10.1017/S0003581509000018 Edwards, N, Robinson, G, Williams, H and Evans, D M 2011, ‘The Pillar of Eliseg Llantysilio, incomplete inscribed cross and cairn’, Archaeol Wales 50, 57–9. Edwards, N 2013a, Corpus of Early Medieval Inscribed Stones and Stone Sculpture in Wales, Volume 3, North Wales, Cardiff: University of Wales Press. Edwards, N, Robinson, G and Williams, H 2014, ‘Llantysilio, The Pillar of Eliseg’, Archaeol Wales 53, 186–9. Hall, M 2015, ‘Lifeways in stone: memories and matter-reality in early medieval sculpture from Scotland’, in Williams et al 2015a, 182–215. Edwards, N, Robinson, G and Williams, H forthcoming, The Pillar of Eliseg – A Monument Biography from Prehistory to the Present, Cardiff: University of Wales Press. Tong, J, Evans, S, Williams, H, Edwards, N and Robinson, G 2015, ‘Vlog to death: Project Eliseg’s video-blogging’, Internet Archaeol 39, <http://intarch.ac.uk/journal/issue39/3/toc.html> [accessed 9 Jan 2017]. Brookes, S 2007, ‘Walking with Anglo-Saxons: landscapes of the living and landscapes of the dead in early Anglo-Saxon Kent’, Anglo-Saxon Stud Hist Archaeol 14, 143–53. Williams, H, Rundkvist, M and Danielsson, A 2010, ‘The landscape of a Swedish boat-grave cemetery’, Landscapes 11:1, 1–24.10.1179/lan.2010.11.1.1 Baker, J and Brookes, S 2015a, ‘Identifying outdoor assembly sites in early medieval England’, J Field Archaeol 40:1, 3–21.10.1179/0093469014Z.000000000103 Semple, S and Sanmark, A 2013, ‘Assembly in north west Europe: collective concerns for early societies?’, European J Archaeol 16:3, 518–42.10.1179/1461957113Y.0000000035 Baker, J and Brookes, S 2015a, ‘Identifying outdoor assembly sites in early medieval England’, J Field Archaeol 40:1, 3–21.10.1179/0093469014Z.000000000103 Bradley, R 1987, ‘Time regained: the creation of continuity’, J Brit Archaeol Assoc 140:1, 1–17.10.1179/jba.1987.140.1.1 Darvill, T 2004, ‘Tynwald Hill and the ‘things’ of power’, in Pantos and Semple, 217–33. Semple, S 2013, Perceptions of the Prehistoric in Anglo-Saxon England: Religion, Ritual and Rulership in the Landscape, Oxford: Oxford University Press.10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199683109.001.0001 Semple, S and Sanmark, A 2013, ‘Assembly in north west Europe: collective concerns for early societies?’, European J Archaeol 16:3, 518–42.10.1179/1461957113Y.0000000035 Williams, H 2006, Death and Memory in Early Medieval Britain, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9780511489594 Williams, H 2011, ‘Remembering elites: early medieval stone crosses as commemorative technologies’, in L Boye, P Ethelberg and L Heidemann Lutz et al (eds), Arkæologi i Slesvig/Archäologie in Schleswig. Sonderband ‘Det 61. Internationale Sachsensymposion 2010’ Haderslev, Danmark, Neumünster: Wachholtz, 13–32. Edwards, N, Robinson, G and Williams, H forthcoming, The Pillar of Eliseg – A Monument Biography from Prehistory to the Present, Cardiff: University of Wales Press. Edwards, N 2009, ‘Rethinking the Pillar of Eliseg’, Antiq J 89, 143–77.10.1017/S0003581509000018 Williams, H 2011, ‘Remembering elites: early medieval stone crosses as commemorative technologies’, in L Boye, P Ethelberg and L Heidemann Lutz et al (eds), Arkæologi i Slesvig/Archäologie in Schleswig. Sonderband ‘Det 61. Internationale Sachsensymposion 2010’ Haderslev, Danmark, Neumünster: Wachholtz, 13–32. Edwards, N, Robinson, G and Williams, H 2013, ‘Llantysilio, The Pillar of Eliseg’, Archaeol Wales 52, 199–201. Bennett, J 1995, Minera: Lead Mines and Quarries, Wrexham: Wrexham Maelor Borough Council. Pratt, D 1995, ‘Valle Crucis Abbey, 1606’, Clwyd Hist 34, 23–7. Sherratt, G 2000, An Illustrated History of Llangollen, Llangollen: Ceiriog Press. Clwyd-Powys Archaeological Trust, 2015a, CPAT Historic Environment Record, < http://www.cpat.org.uk/> [accessed 16 Jun 2015]. Williams, D H 1990, Atlas of Cistercian Landscapes in Wales, Cardiff: University of Wales Press. Semple, S and Sanmark, A 2013, ‘Assembly in north west Europe: collective concerns for early societies?’, European J Archaeol 16:3, 518–42.10.1179/1461957113Y.0000000035 Fitzpatrick, E 2012, ‘Formaoil na Fiann: hunting preserves and assembly places in Gaelic Ireland’, Proc Harvard Celtic Colloquium 32, 95–118. FitzPatrick, E 2015, ‘Assembly places and elite collective identities in medieval Ireland’, J North Atlantic Special Vol 8, 52–68.10.3721/037.002.sp805 Edwards, N 2009, ‘Rethinking the Pillar of Eliseg’, Antiq J 89, 143–77.10.1017/S0003581509000018 Williams, H 2011, ‘Remembering elites: early medieval stone crosses as commemorative technologies’, in L Boye, P Ethelberg and L Heidemann Lutz et al (eds), Arkæologi i Slesvig/Archäologie in Schleswig. Sonderband ‘Det 61. Internationale Sachsensymposion 2010’ Haderslev, Danmark, Neumünster: Wachholtz, 13–32. Seaman, A 2016, Defended settlement in early medieval Wales: problems of presence, absence and interpretation, in N Christie and H Herold (eds), Fortified Settlements in Early Medieval Europe: Defended Communities of the 8th–10th Centuries, Oxford: Oxbow, 37–52. Kightly, C 2003, Dinas Brân, Langollen/Castell Dinas Brân, Llangollen, Ruthin: Denbighshire County Council. Edwards, N 2008, ‘The Pillar of Eliseg’, in D H Evans, Valle Crucis Abbey, revs edn, Cadw: Welsh Assembly Government, 53–6. Silvester, R J and Evans, J W 2009, ‘Identifying the mother churches of north-east Wales’ in N Edwards (ed), The Archaeology of the Early Medieval Celtic Churches, Soc Medieval Arch Monog 29, Soc Church Archaeol Monog 1, 21–40. Davies, W 1982, Wales in the Early Middle Ages, Leicester: University of Leicester Press. Charles-Edwards, T M 2013, Wales and the Britons, 350–1064, The History of Wales vol 1, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Edwards, N 2009, ‘Rethinking the Pillar of Eliseg’, Antiq J 89, 143–77.10.1017/S0003581509000018 Charles-Edwards, T M 2004, ‘Gorsedd, dadl, and llys: assemblies and courts in medieval Wales’, in Pantos and Semple, 95–108. Comeau, R 2014, ‘Bayvil in Cemais: an early medieval assembly site in south-west Wales?’ Medieval Archaeol 58, 270–84.10.1179/0076609714Z.00000000038 Edwards, N 2009, ‘Rethinking the Pillar of Eliseg’, Antiq J 89, 143–77.10.1017/S0003581509000018 Williams, H 2011, ‘Remembering elites: early medieval stone crosses as commemorative technologies’, in L Boye, P Ethelberg and L Heidemann Lutz et al (eds), Arkæologi i Slesvig/Archäologie in Schleswig. Sonderband ‘Det 61. Internationale Sachsensymposion 2010’ Haderslev, Danmark, Neumünster: Wachholtz, 13–32. Kirton, J 2015, ‘Locating the Cleulow Cross: materiality, place and landscape’, in Williams et al 2015a, 35–61. Edwards, N, Robinson, G and Williams, H 2013, ‘Llantysilio, The Pillar of Eliseg’, Archaeol Wales 52, 199–201. Williams, H 2011, ‘Remembering elites: early medieval stone crosses as commemorative technologies’, in L Boye, P Ethelberg and L Heidemann Lutz et al (eds), Arkæologi i Slesvig/Archäologie in Schleswig. Sonderband ‘Det 61. Internationale Sachsensymposion 2010’ Haderslev, Danmark, Neumünster: Wachholtz, 13–32. Kirton, J 2015, ‘Locating the Cleulow Cross: materiality, place and landscape’, in Williams et al 2015a, 35–61. Williams, H, Kirton, J and Gondek, M 2015b, ‘Introduction: stones in substance, space and time’, in Williams et al 2015a, 1–34. Williams, H 2016, ‘“Clumsy and illogical”? Reconsidering the West Kirby hogback’, Antiq J 96, 69–100. Comeau, R 2014, ‘Bayvil in Cemais: an early medieval assembly site in south-west Wales?’ Medieval Archaeol 58, 270–84.10.1179/0076609714Z.00000000038 Seaman, A 2016, Defended settlement in early medieval Wales: problems of presence, absence and interpretation, in N Christie and H Herold (eds), Fortified Settlements in Early Medieval Europe: Defended Communities of the 8th–10th Centuries, Oxford: Oxbow, 37–52. Back Danielsson, I-M 2015, ‘Walking down memory lane: rune-stones as mnemonic agents in the landscapes of late Viking-Age Scandinavia’, in Williams et al 2015a, 62–86. Fox, C 1955, Offa’s Dyke: A Field Survey of the Western Frontier-Works of Mercia in the Seventh and Eighth Centuries ad, London: Oxford University Press. Noble, F 1983, Offa’s Dyke Reviewed, Brit Archaeol Rep Brit Ser 114. Hill, D and Worthington, M 2003, Offa’s Dyke: History and Guide, Stroud: Tempus. Ray, K and Bapty, I 2016. Offa’s Dyke. Landscape and Hegemony in Eighth-Century Britain, Oxford: Oxbow. Hayes, L and Malim, T 2008, ‘The date and nature of Wat’s Dyke: a reassessment in the light of recent investigations at Gobowen, Shropshire’, Anglo-Saxon Stud Archaeol Hist 15, 147–79. Worthington, M 1997, ‘Wat’s Dyke: an archaeological and historical enigma’, Bull John Rylands Univ Library Manchester 79:3, 177–96. Worthington Hill, M and Grigg, E 2015, ‘Boundaries and walls’, in Hyer and Owen-Crocker, 162–80. Ray, K and Bapty, I 2016. Offa’s Dyke. Landscape and Hegemony in Eighth-Century Britain, Oxford: Oxbow. Lock, G R (ed) 2000, Beyond the Map: Archaeology and Spatial Technologies, Amsterdam: IOS. Earl, G, Sly, T, Chrysanthi, A, Murrieta-Flores, P, Papadopoulos, C, Romanowska, I, and Wheatley, D (eds) 2013, Archaeology in the Digital Era: Papers from the 40th Annual Conference of Computer Applications and Quantitative Methods in Archaeology (CAA), Southampton, 26–29 March 2012, Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press. Frachetti, M D 2006, ‘Digital archaeology and the scalar structure of pastoral landscapes: modeling mobile societies of prehistoric central Asia, in P Daly and T L Evans (eds), Digital Archaeology: Bridging Method and Theory, London: Routledge, 128–47. Frachetti, M D 2008, ‘Variability and dynamic landscapes of mobile pastoralism in ethnography and prehistory’, in H Barnard and W Wendrich (eds), The Archaeology of Mobility. Old World and New World Nomadism, Los Angeles: Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, University of California, 366–92. Lake, M and Woodman, P 2003, Visibility studies in archaeology: a review and case study, Environment and Planning B 30:5, 689–707.10.1068/b29122 Llobera, M 2007a, ‘Modeling visibility through vegetation’, Int J Geographl Informat Sci 21:7, 799–810.10.1080/13658810601169865 Llobera, M 2007b, ‘Reconstructing visual landscapes’, World Archaeol 39:1, 51–69.10.1080/00438240601136496 Llobera, M and Sluckin, T 2007, Zigzagging: theoretical insights on climbing strategies, J Theoretical Archaeol 249, 206–17. Mlekuž, D 2010, ‘Time geography, GIS and archaeology’, in Contreras, Fargas and Melero, 359–65. Mlekuž, D 2014, ‘Approaching past movement: time to move a little further?’, in Polla and Verhagen, 5–22. Murrieta-Flores, P 2012, ‘Understanding human movement through spatial technologies. The role of natural areas of transit in the late prehistory of south-western Iberia’, Trabajos Prehist 69:1, 103–22. Murrieta-Flores, P 2013, ‘Space and temporality in herding societies: exploring dynamics of movement during Iberian late Prehistory’, in S Souvatzi and A Hadji (eds), Space and Time in Mediterranean Prehistory, London: Routledge, 196–213. Murrieta-Flores, P 2014, ‘Developing computational approaches for the study of movement: the impact of visibility in terrestrial navigation during Iberian late prehistory’, in Polla and Verhagen, 99–132. Verhagen, P 2010, ‘On the road to nowhere? Least cost paths and the predictive modelling perspective’, in Contreras, Fargas and Melero, 439–42. Wheatley, D W, Sanjuán, L G, Murrieta Flores, P A and Pérez, J M 2010, ‘Approaching the landscape dimension of the megalithic phenomenon in southern Spain’, Oxford J Archaeol 29:4, 387–405.10.1111/ojoa.2010.29.issue-4 Wheatley, D and Gillings, M 2002, Spatial Technology and Archaeology: The Archaeological Applications of GIS, London: Taylor and Francis.10.4324/9780203302392 Baker, J and Brookes, S 2015b, ‘Signalling intent: beacons, lookouts and military communications’, in Hyer and Owen-Crocker, 216–34. Brookes, S 2013, ‘Mapping Anglo-Saxon civil defence’, in J Baker, S Brookes and A Reynolds (eds), Landscapes of Defence in Early Medieval Europe, Turnhout: Brepols, 39–64.10.1484/M.SEM-EB.6.09070802050003050209050601 Hill, D and Worthington, M 2003, Offa’s Dyke: History and Guide, Stroud: Tempus. Tabik, S, Cervilla, A R, Zapata, E and Romero, L F 2015, ‘Efficient data structure and highly scalable algorithm for total-viewshed computation’, IEEE J Selected Topics Applied Earth Observations Remote Sensing 8:1, 304–10.10.1109/JSTARS.2014.2326252 Murrieta-Flores, P 2012, ‘Understanding human movement through spatial technologies. The role of natural areas of transit in the late prehistory of south-western Iberia’, Trabajos Prehist 69:1, 103–22. Murrieta-Flores, P 2013, ‘Space and temporality in herding societies: exploring dynamics of movement during Iberian late Prehistory’, in S Souvatzi and A Hadji (eds), Space and Time in Mediterranean Prehistory, London: Routledge, 196–213. Tabik, S, Cervilla, A R, Zapata, E and Romero, L F 2015, ‘Efficient data structure and highly scalable algorithm for total-viewshed computation’, IEEE J Selected Topics Applied Earth Observations Remote Sensing 8:1, 304–10.10.1109/JSTARS.2014.2326252 Schneider, K and Robbins, P 2009, GIS and Mountain Environments, Geneva: UNITAR. Edwards, J F 1987, The Transport System of Medieval England and Wales – A Geographical Synthesis ( unpubl PhD thesis, University of Salford). Baker, J and Brookes, S 2015b, ‘Signalling intent: beacons, lookouts and military communications’, in Hyer and Owen-Crocker, 216–34. Brookes, S 2013, ‘Mapping Anglo-Saxon civil defence’, in J Baker, S Brookes and A Reynolds (eds), Landscapes of Defence in Early Medieval Europe, Turnhout: Brepols, 39–64.10.1484/M.SEM-EB.6.09070802050003050209050601 Hindle, P 2015, ‘Roads and tracks in Anglo-Saxon England’, in Hyer and Owen-Crocker, 37–49. Malim, T 2007, ‘The origins and design of linear earthworks in the Welsh Marches’, Landscape Enquires, Proc Clifton Antiq Club 8, 13–32. Reynolds, A and Langlands, A 2011, ‘Travel as communication: a consideration of overland journeys in Anglo-Saxon England’, World Archaeol 43:3, 410–27.10.1080/00438243.2011.615158 Herzog, I 2010, ‘Theory and practice of cost functions’, in Contreras, Fargas and Melero, 375–82. Murrieta-Flores, P 2012, ‘Understanding human movement through spatial technologies. The role of natural areas of transit in the late prehistory of south-western Iberia’, Trabajos Prehist 69:1, 103–22. Wheatley, D and Gillings, M 2002, Spatial Technology and Archaeology: The Archaeological Applications of GIS, London: Taylor and Francis.10.4324/9780203302392 Gillings, M and Wheatley, D 2001, ‘Seeing is not believing: unresolved issues in Archaeological Visibility Analysis’, in On the Good Use of Geographical Information Systems in Archaeological Landscape Studies. Proceedings of the COST G2 Working Group 2 Round Table, Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 25–36. Frieman, C, and Gillings, M 2007, ‘Seeing is perceiving?’, World Archaeol 39:1, 4–16.10.1080/00438240601133816 Llobera, M 2007a, ‘Modeling visibility through vegetation’, Int J Geographl Informat Sci 21:7, 799–810.10.1080/13658810601169865 Llobera, M 2007b, ‘Reconstructing visual landscapes’, World Archaeol 39:1, 51–69.10.1080/00438240601136496 Wheatley, D 2014, ‘Connecting landscapes with built environments: Visibility Analysis, scale and the senses’, in E Paliou, U Lieberwirth and S Polla (eds), Spatial Analysis and Social Spaces: Interdisciplinary Approaches to the Interpretation of Historic and Prehistoric Built Environments, Boston: De Gruyter, 115–34. Kirton, J 2015, ‘Locating the Cleulow Cross: materiality, place and landscape’, in Williams et al 2015a, 35–61. Reynolds, A and Langlands, A 2011, ‘Travel as communication: a consideration of overland journeys in Anglo-Saxon England’, World Archaeol 43:3, 410–27.10.1080/00438243.2011.615158 Conolly, J and Lake, M 2006, Geographical Information Systems in Archaeology, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9780511807459 Wheatley, D and Gillings, M 2002, Spatial Technology and Archaeology: The Archaeological Applications of GIS, London: Taylor and Francis.10.4324/9780203302392 Wheatley, D 1995, ‘Cumulative viewshed analysis: a GIS-based method for investigating intervisibility, and its archaeological application’, in G R Lock and Z Stančič (eds), Archaeology and Geographical Information Systems: A European Perspective, London: Routledge, 171–85. Wheatley, D and Gillings, M 2002, Spatial Technology and Archaeology: The Archaeological Applications of GIS, London: Taylor and Francis.10.4324/9780203302392 Stewart, A J 1998, ‘Fast horizon computation at all points of a terrain with visibility and shading applications’, IEEE Trans Visualization Computer Graphics 4:1, 82–93.10.1109/2945.675656 Tabik, S, Romero, L F and Zapata, E L 2011, ‘High-performance three-horizon composition algorithm for large-scale terrains’, Int J Geogr Informat Sci 25:4, 541–55.10.1080/13658810903149995 Lindsay, J B 2014, ‘The Whitebox geospatial analysis tools project and open-access GIS’, in J Drummond (ed), Proceedings of the GIS Research UK 22nd Annual Conference, University of Glasgow 16–18 April 2014, Glasgow: University of Glasgow, 10–19. Tabik, S, Cervilla, A R, Zapata, E and Romero, L F 2015, ‘Efficient data structure and highly scalable algorithm for total-viewshed computation’, IEEE J Selected Topics Applied Earth Observations Remote Sensing 8:1, 304–10.10.1109/JSTARS.2014.2326252 Llobera, M 2007a, ‘Modeling visibility through vegetation’, Int J Geographl Informat Sci 21:7, 799–810.10.1080/13658810601169865 Llobera, M 2007b, ‘Reconstructing visual landscapes’, World Archaeol 39:1, 51–69.10.1080/00438240601136496 Charles-Edwards, T M 2013, Wales and the Britons, 350–1064, The History of Wales vol 1, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Hill, D 2000, ‘Offa’s Dyke: pattern and purpose’, Antiq J 80, 195–206.10.1017/S0003581500050216 Worthington, M 1997, ‘Wat’s Dyke: an archaeological and historical enigma’, Bull John Rylands Univ Library Manchester 79:3, 177–96. Ray, K and Bapty, I 2016. Offa’s Dyke. Landscape and Hegemony in Eighth-Century Britain, Oxford: Oxbow. Hayes, L and Malim, T 2008, ‘The date and nature of Wat’s Dyke: a reassessment in the light of recent investigations at Gobowen, Shropshire’, Anglo-Saxon Stud Archaeol Hist 15, 147–79. Worthington, M 1997, ‘Wat’s Dyke: an archaeological and historical enigma’, Bull John Rylands Univ Library Manchester 79:3, 177–96. Swallow, R 2016, ‘Cheshire castles of the Irish Sea cultural zone’, Archaeol J 173:2, 288–341.10.1080/00665983.2016.1191279 Williams, H and Murrieta-Flores, P forthcoming, Dykes beyond defence: seeing and shaping the landscape of the Mercian frontier. Reynolds, A and Langlands, A 2011, ‘Travel as communication: a consideration of overland journeys in Anglo-Saxon England’, World Archaeol 43:3, 410–27.10.1080/00438243.2011.615158 Baker, J and Brookes, S 2015b, ‘Signalling intent: beacons, lookouts and military communications’, in Hyer and Owen-Crocker, 216–34. Hill, D and Worthington, M 2003, Offa’s Dyke: History and Guide, Stroud: Tempus. Simpson, W T 1853, History of Llangollen and its Vicinity, Llangollen: David Roberts, Bridge Street. Ray, K and Bapty, I 2016. Offa’s Dyke. Landscape and Hegemony in Eighth-Century Britain, Oxford: Oxbow. Brookes, S 2013, ‘Mapping Anglo-Saxon civil defence’, in J Baker, S Brookes and A Reynolds (eds), Landscapes of Defence in Early Medieval Europe, Turnhout: Brepols, 39–64.10.1484/M.SEM-EB.6.09070802050003050209050601 Ray, K and Bapty, I 2016. Offa’s Dyke. Landscape and Hegemony in Eighth-Century Britain, Oxford: Oxbow. Ray, K and Bapty, I 2016. Offa’s Dyke. Landscape and Hegemony in Eighth-Century Britain, Oxford: Oxbow. Ray, K and Bapty, I 2016. Offa’s Dyke. Landscape and Hegemony in Eighth-Century Britain, Oxford: Oxbow. Malim, T 2007, ‘The origins and design of linear earthworks in the Welsh Marches’, Landscape Enquires, Proc Clifton Antiq Club 8, 13–32. Ray, K and Bapty, I 2016. Offa’s Dyke. Landscape and Hegemony in Eighth-Century Britain, Oxford: Oxbow. Williams, H and Murrieta-Flores, P forthcoming, Dykes beyond defence: seeing and shaping the landscape of the Mercian frontier. Brookes, S 2013, ‘Mapping Anglo-Saxon civil defence’, in J Baker, S Brookes and A Reynolds (eds), Landscapes of Defence in Early Medieval Europe, Turnhout: Brepols, 39–64.10.1484/M.SEM-EB.6.09070802050003050209050601 Hill, D and Worthington, M 2003, Offa’s Dyke: History and Guide, Stroud: Tempus. Ray, K and Bapty, I 2016. Offa’s Dyke. Landscape and Hegemony in Eighth-Century Britain, Oxford: Oxbow. Insley, C 2012, ‘The family of Wulfric Spott: an Anglo-Saxon Mercian Marcher dynasty?’, in D Roffe (ed), The English and Their Legacy, 900–1200: Essays in Honour of Ann Williams, Woodbridge: Boydell, 115–28. Noble, F 1983, Offa’s Dyke Reviewed, Brit Archaeol Rep Brit Ser 114. Hill, D 2000, ‘Offa’s Dyke: pattern and purpose’, Antiq J 80, 195–206.10.1017/S0003581500050216 Ray, K and Bapty, I 2016. Offa’s Dyke. Landscape and Hegemony in Eighth-Century Britain, Oxford: Oxbow. Edwards, N, Robinson, G and Williams, H forthcoming, The Pillar of Eliseg – A Monument Biography from Prehistory to the Present, Cardiff: University of Wales Press. Edwards, N 2013a, Corpus of Early Medieval Inscribed Stones and Stone Sculpture in Wales, Volume 3, North Wales, Cardiff: University of Wales Press. Baker, J and Brookes, S 2015b, ‘Signalling intent: beacons, lookouts and military communications’, in Hyer and Owen-Crocker, 216–34. Charles-Edwards, T M 2013, Wales and the Britons, 350–1064, The History of Wales vol 1, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Gelling, M 1992, The West Midlands in the Early Middle Ages, Leicester: Leicester University Press. Hill, D and Worthington, M 2003, Offa’s Dyke: History and Guide, Stroud: Tempus. Molyneaux, G 2011, ‘The ordinance concerning the Dunsæte and the Anglo-Welsh frontier in the late tenth and eleventh centuries’, Anglo-Saxon Engl 40, 249–72.10.1017/S0263675111000111 Ray, K and Bapty, I 2016. Offa’s Dyke. Landscape and Hegemony in Eighth-Century Britain, Oxford: Oxbow. Gelling, M 1992, The West Midlands in the Early Middle Ages, Leicester: Leicester University Press. Molyneaux, G 2011, ‘The ordinance concerning the Dunsæte and the Anglo-Welsh frontier in the late tenth and eleventh centuries’, Anglo-Saxon Engl 40, 249–72.10.1017/S0263675111000111 Molyneaux, G 2011, ‘The ordinance concerning the Dunsæte and the Anglo-Welsh frontier in the late tenth and eleventh centuries’, Anglo-Saxon Engl 40, 249–72.10.1017/S0263675111000111 Besly, E 2006, ‘Few and far between: mints and coins in Wales to the middle of the thirteenth century’, in B J Cook, G Williams and M Archibald (eds), Coinage and History in the North Sea World, c AD 500–1250: Essays in Honour of Marion Archibald, Leiden: Brill, 701–20. Redknap, M 2007, ‘Crossing boundaries — stylistic diversity and external contacts in early medieval Wales and the March: reflections on metalwork and sculpture’, Cambrian Medieval Celtic Stud 53/54, 23–86. Molyneaux, G 2011, ‘The ordinance concerning the Dunsæte and the Anglo-Welsh frontier in the late tenth and eleventh centuries’, Anglo-Saxon Engl 40, 249–72.10.1017/S0263675111000111 Ray, K and Bapty, I 2016. Offa’s Dyke. Landscape and Hegemony in Eighth-Century Britain, Oxford: Oxbow. Charles-Edwards, T M 2013, Wales and the Britons, 350–1064, The History of Wales vol 1, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Ray, K and Bapty, I 2016. Offa’s Dyke. Landscape and Hegemony in Eighth-Century Britain, Oxford: Oxbow. Edwards, N 2013a, Corpus of Early Medieval Inscribed Stones and Stone Sculpture in Wales, Volume 3, North Wales, Cardiff: University of Wales Press. Ingram, J (trans), 1912a, The Annales Cambriae (The Annals of Wales), London: Everyman. Kirby, D P 2002, The Earliest English Kings, London: Routledge. Bailey, R N 2010, Cheshire and Lancashire, Corpus of Anglo-Saxon Stone Sculpture 9, Oxford: The British Academy and Oxford University Press. Edwards, N 2013a, Corpus of Early Medieval Inscribed Stones and Stone Sculpture in Wales, Volume 3, North Wales, Cardiff: University of Wales Press. Charles-Edwards, T M 2013, Wales and the Britons, 350–1064, The History of Wales vol 1, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Edwards, N, Robinson, G and Williams, H forthcoming, The Pillar of Eliseg – A Monument Biography from Prehistory to the Present, Cardiff: University of Wales Press. Baker, J and Brookes, S 2015b, ‘Signalling intent: beacons, lookouts and military communications’, in Hyer and Owen-Crocker, 216–34. Edwards, N 2009, ‘Rethinking the Pillar of Eliseg’, Antiq J 89, 143–77.10.1017/S0003581509000018 Bailey, R N 2010, Cheshire and Lancashire, Corpus of Anglo-Saxon Stone Sculpture 9, Oxford: The British Academy and Oxford University Press. Baker, J and Brookes, S 2015a, ‘Identifying outdoor assembly sites in early medieval England’, J Field Archaeol 40:1, 3–21.10.1179/0093469014Z.000000000103 Baker, J and Brookes, S 2015b, ‘Signalling intent: beacons, lookouts and military communications’, in Hyer and Owen-Crocker, 216–34. Hill, D 2001, ‘Mercians: the dwellers on the boundary’, in M P Brown and C A Farr (eds), Mercia: An Anglo-Saxon Kingdom in Europe, London: Bloomsbury, 173–82. Malim, T 2007, ‘The origins and design of linear earthworks in the Welsh Marches’, Landscape Enquires, Proc Clifton Antiq Club 8, 13–32.