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Notes
1. In this article, by “intellectuals” I mean the group of people who are involved in the creation, elaboration and dissemination of ideas and symbols (following Lipset's 1960 definition). This group includes writers, poets, journalists and academics (mainly in the humanities and social sciences), and excludes technocrats, professionals and bureaucrats.
2. This has been presented in Paul Hollander's (1981) work on radical intellectuals in the West.
3. The complicated dynamic of intellectuals' “spokespersonship,” that is, the difficult relation between the groups on whose behalf intellectuals are supposedly speaking and the constructed nature of these represented “subjects,” has received detailed analysis in the recent book by Dick Pels (Citation2000).
4. The strengthening of Latvian nationalism happened in the period when the number of Latvians was actually increasing. Thus, in 1920 Latvians constituted 72.7%, Germans 3.6%, Russians 7.8%, Belorussians 4.7% and Jews 5% of the population. In 1935 Latvians were 75.7.%, Germans 3.2%, Russians 10.6%, Belorussians 1.4% and Jews 4.8% (Plakans, Citation1995, p. 132).
5. For example, writer Karlis Skalbe, in his address to parliament on 27 June 1933, said, “Returning to the Parliament after six years, I noticed, that it is absolutely impossible to realize any kind of consistent state policy. This place is ruled by mutual political servicing: you give to me—I will give to you” (quoted in Klive, Citation1987, p. 148).
6. The group consists of (in alphabetical order): writer Janis Akuraters (1976–1937); teacher and writer Longins Ausejs (1885–?); publicist and historian Alfreds Bilmanis (1887–1948); journalist Ernests Blanks (1894–1972); painter, publicist and teacher Ernests Brastins (1892–1940); poet Leonids Breikss (1908–1942); writer and journalist Eduards Calitis (1881–1947); philosopher and professor Teodors Celms (1893–1989); teacher and professor of pedagogy Aleksandrs Dauge (1868–1937); writer and professor Karlis Dislers (1878–1954); journalist and editor Julijs Druva (1882–1950); writer Viktors Eglitis (1877–1945); writer and editor Haralds Eldgasts (1882–1926); writer and journalist Karlis Eliass (1899–1985); writer Janis Ezerins (1891–1924); writer, editor and publicist Aleksandrs Grins (1895–1941); writer Janis Grins (1890–1966); philosopher and professor Pauls Jurevics (1891–1981); writer and publicist Ivande Kaija (1876–1942); poet and lawyer Atis Kenins (1874–1961); writer Janis Klidzejs (1914–); journalist and editor Arturs Kroders (1892–1973); poet and writer Aida Niedra (1899–1972); editor and publicist Aleksandrs Plensners (1892–1984); writer Ligotnu Jekabs (Jekabs Roze) (1847–1942); writer and publicist Karlis Skalbe (1879–1945); historian and professor Arnolds Spekke (1887–1978); historian and journalist Adolfs Silde (1907–1990); writer, historian and professor Arveds Svabe (1888–1959); publicist and editor Zanis Unams (1902–1989); editor and publicist Karlis Upitis (1894–?); poet and writer Edvarts Virza (1883–1940).
7. Articles that were signed with pseudonyms were excluded, since in many cases the authorship of these articles is doubtful to this day. It must be noted that patriotic poems, literary essays and critiques of books and theatre, fiction writing and news items that in one or another way touched upon the theme of patriotism and “Latvianness” were not analyzed. The reason for this choice was the goal of the study, namely, revealing specifically political not artistic or any other type of contribution of the Latvian intelligentsia to nationalist politics. Intellectuals' political writing was abundant and regular, providing sufficient evidence for the arguments made in this article.
8. For example, writer Janis Akuraters, who later was a well-known nationalist, was hiding with Russian socialist terrorists in Finland in 1907. In his memoirs, Akuraters described them as “the most beautiful people both spiritually and physically,” dedicated to “destroying the hated czarist Russia” (Egle, Citation1924, p. 176). Akuraters was also among the founders of the Latvian Social Democratic Party (Lams Citation2003). Vehement nationalist, ethnographer, Minister of Education of independent Latvia and a supporter of Ulmanis's regime in the 1930s, Karlis Straubergs as a student was an enthusiastic Marxist (Plensners, Citation1978).
9. Historian Uldis Germanis (Citation1992) believes that intellectuals such as M. Valters, E. Rolavs and E. Skubikis were greatly influenced by the demands of the Austrian Social Democrats, the ideas of Otto Bauer and the federalism of the Swiss constitution. They demanded a kind of socialist revolution that would destroy not only the monarchy but also Russian nationalist domination over the native populations.
10. This conflict could be explained by what James Billington (Citation1986) describes as a struggle between romanticism and rationalism in nineteenth-century Europe or between what Edward Shils (1958) calls the intellectual traditions of romanticism and scientism. In this opposition, nationalist emotional attachment to the particularity and unity of the nation became questioned by “socialists' intellectual focus on general laws and mechanistic analysis” (Billington, Citation1986, p. 147). Both nationalists and socialists were interested in a revolutionary change. However, nationalists focused on the revolutionary nature of the nation and proposed a world consisting of free nations, while socialists promoted a revolution that came out of the Enlightenment's scientific universalism and rationalism superimposed on the messianic conception of the liberating working class.
11. Here and throughout the article all translations from the Latvian are mine.
12. Aleksandrs Dauge, “Ar ko valsts ir stipra,” Latvis, 1 May 1929, p. 2.
13. Aleksandrs Dauge, “Politiki un jaunatne,” Latvis, 14 September 1930, pp. 1–2.
14. Aleksandrs Dauge, “Valsts un kultura,” Burtnieks, Vol. 1, 1928, pp. 38–50. Similar ideas were expressed a few years later in his “Kulturas politika,” Latvis, 7 November 1930, p. 1–2.
15. Aleksandrs Dauge, “Nacija un valsts,” Nacionalais darbs, 6 January 1930, p. 3. Continued on 10 January 1930, p. 2.
16. Haralds Eldgasts, “Partejisma posts,” Kurzemes Vards, 21 December 1922, pp. 1–2. Eldgasts expressed similar ideas in “Kadiem idealiem mus vajadzetu apvienot?” Kurzemes Vards, 8 June 1924, pp. 1–2.
17. Aleksandrs Grins, “Varonu svetkos,” Rigas Zinas, 11 November 1925, p. 2.
18. Janis Akuraters, “Mums vajadziga nacionalisma atdzimsana un pareiza izpratne,” Jaunakas Zinas, 7 March 1927, p. 1. Very similar statements were made by the much more radical nationalist Haralds Eldgasts just a year earlier in his article “Politika aprok idealismu,” Kurzemes Vards, 18 July 1926, pp. 1–2.
19. Haralds Eldgasts, “Lielakais launums,” Kurzemes Vards, 14 January 1923, pp. 1–2.
20. Aleksandrs Plensners, “Nacionala ideologija,” Rigas Zinas, 7 September 1925, p. 2. Edvarts Virza, “Latviesu zemnieks Latvijas veidotajs,” Briva Zeme, 23 September 1933, p. 8. Leonids Breikss, “Latviesu svetku diena,” Latvis, 17 June 1933, p. 2. Numerous other articles displayed similar sentiments.
21. Leonids Breikss, “Vinu laiks ir klat!” Universitas, 15 March 1933, pp. 71–72.
22. Arturs Kroders, “Editorial,” Jaunakas Zinas, 5 September 1921, p. 1.
23. Janis Akuraters, “Vairak gariga speka,” Jaunakas Zinas, 22 March 1921, p. 3.
24. Aleksandrs Dauge, “Sociala kultura,” Latvis, 20 February 1930, pp. 1–2.
25. Ivande Kaija, “Musu pedejais krusts,” Latvijas Sargs, 5 August 1921, p. 1.
26. Edvarts Virza, “Valsts un demokratija,” Briva Zeme, 27 May 1924, p. 1.
27. Eduards Calitis, “Klike,” Latvijas Sargs, 30 November 1921, p. 1.
28. Karlis Skalbe, “Mazas piezimes,” Jaunakas Zinas, 20 January 1923, pp. 1–2.
29. Ernests Brastins, “Latviesu varasvirs,” Briva Zeme, 9 December 1933, p. 12.
30. Atis Kenins, “Vienotas tautas griba un kultura parvares visu,” Jaunakas Zinas, 2 October 1931, p. 6. Similar ideas were expressed in Janis Akuraters, “Ir vajadziga politiska atmoda,” Pirmdiena, 9 March 1925, p. 4.
31. Karlis Skalbe, “Saimniecibas virs,” Jaunakas Zinas, 4 May 1928, p. 1.
32. Janis Akuraters, “Vienas dienas cilveki,” Jaunakas Zinas, 12 November 1925, p. 1.
33. Janis Akuraters, “Valstiskas politikas pagrimsana,” Pirmdiena, 9 February 1925, p. 3. This article received a positive response from other nationalist intellectuals. For example, Haralds Eldgasts very approvingly quoted it in his own article on a similar theme (Kurzemes Vards, 15 March 1925, p. 1). Edvarts Virza expressed similar ideas a few years later in “Latviesu zemnieks Latvijas veidotajs,” Briva Zeme, 23 September 1933, p. 8.
34. Janis Akuraters, “Sabiedriska doma un veiklanieki,” Jaunakas Zinas, 4 August 1925, p. 1.
35. Viktors Eglitis, “Iespaids no disputa liela Gilde,” Jauna Diena, 15 December 1932, p. 1.
36. It has to be noted that although often in nationalist doctrines the dislike for capitalism and modernity is closely related to anti-Westernism, I did not find much dislike towards the West in Latvian nationalism. Although at certain moments nationalists celebrated the decline of “old Europe,” by which they meant liberalism and democracy, they also talked about the onset of a new kind of Europe led by the new nationalist nations (especially Italy). Occasionally, nationalist intellectuals described democracy as a destructive “foreign import;” however, in general nationalist intellectuals were greatly interested in asserting Latvians as equals among the world's nations and they did not turn against the West in a way that characterized, for example, Russian nationalism.
37. In 1933 the well-known politician-diplomat and intellectual Mikelis Valters wrote a programmatic volume From Collapse to Planned Economy: Problems of Latvia's Rejuvenation: The Future of Latvia in which he argued that individual initiative in economics should be subordinated to national considerations. Instead of “unfettered egoism” he promoted “co-operation of all citizens and the corporative structure of economy” (quoted in Balabkins and Aizsilnieks, Citation1975, p. 75). A profit-oriented economy needed to be replaced with national cooperation controlled by the state and aimed at eventual removal of all non-Latvian elements from the economy. Latvia, he suggested, had to be made Latvian both politically and economically.
38. Jekabs Ligotnu, “Runa Latvijas Lauksaimnieku kongresa,” Briva Zeme, 20 January 1921, p. 2. See also Arturs Kroders,“Par nacionalo politiku,” Latvijas Vestnesis, 26 July 1923, pp. 1–2.
39. Janis Akuraters, “Latvjiem vajadziga jauna nacionala atmoda,” Jaunakas Zinas, 1 October 1931, p. 2.
40. Ernests Blanks, “Latviesu demokratija ir naidiga vadonibas idejai,” Latvijas Sargs, 29 August 1932, p. 2.
41. Aleksandrs Dauge, “Sociala kultura,” Latvis, 20 February 1930, pp. 1–2.
42. Leonids Breikss, “Latviesu svetku diena,” Briva Zeme, 17 June 1933, p. 2. Ernests Brastins, “Latviesu varasvirs,” Briva Zeme, 9 December 1933, p. 12.
43. Atis Kenins, “Demokratiska pilsoniba un tautas vieniba,” Centra Balss, 11 April 1930, p. 6.
44. At some point, writer Janis Akuraters even suggested that if the people do not realize their cultural values and future potential, the state must discipline and guide them—if necessary, by force (“Vai mums ir nacionala skola?” Latvijas Vestnesis, 14 July 1924, p. 5.)
45. Leonids Breikss, “Ticibas atjaunosana,” Latvis, 31 October 1933, p. 1.
46. Karlis Upitis, “Kultura un politika,” Latvijas Sargs, 13 and 17 October 1921, p. 1.
47. Edvarts Virza, “Dazadi noverojumi,” Briva Zeme, 14 May 1927, p. 5; “Pienakumi un izredzes,” Briva Zeme, 18 July 1928, p. 3.
48. Arturs Kroders, “Tas celiens nobeidzies,” Pirmdiena, 7 June 1926, p. 2.
49. As Ernests Brastins wrote, “The theory of nationalism contradicts its execution and practice today … The world of the facts is at odds with our spiritual and Latvian world … Politics separates us from ourselves … Politics has become too clumsy and rough for our delicate cultural and national problems” (“Latviska utopija,” Briva Zeme, 31 January 1931, p. 6).
50. It is known that only the writer Edvarts Virza had suggested dictatorship as early as 1918 (Bluzma, Citation1991). Other intellectuals gradually moved from striving for the prefect nation, to critique of democracy and calls for radical transformation to authoritarianism.
51. Ernests Brastins, “Latviska utopija,” Briva Zeme, 31 January 1931, p. 6
52. Janis Akuraters, “Tautas vieniba,” Jaunakas Zinas, 6 February 1932, p. 1; “Latvjiem vajadziga jauna nacionala atmoda,” Jaunakas Zinas, 1 October 1933, p. 2; Eduards Calitis, “Ko teiks musu nacionalisti?,” Pedeja Bridi, 9 September 1931, p. 1; Leonids Breikss, “Ticibas atjaunosana,” Latvis, 31 October 1933, p. 1; Aleksandrs Dauge, “Atklata vestule L.N.J.S. pulciniem,” Nacionalais Trissturis, Vol. 1, Nos 1–2, 1931, pp. 1–3.
53. Karlis Upitis, “Kultura un politika,” Latvijas Sargs, 13 and 17 October 1921, pp. 2–3; “Nacionalisma problemi,” Latvijas Kareivis, 5 January 1923, pp. 1–2.
54. Aleksandrs Dauge, “Par valstisku kulturu,” Balss, 1 January 1925, p. 1.
55. See, for example, Karlis Skalbe, “Valsts doma,” Jaunakas Zinas, 30 April 1932, p. 1.
56. Karlis Skalbe, “Mums ejams savs cels,” Jaunakas Zinas, 30 December 1933, p. 2.
57. Karlis Skalbe, “Latviesu koalicija,” Jaunakas Zinas, 30 April 1932, p. 1.
58. Janis Akuraters, “Latvjiem vajadziga jauna nacionala atmoda,” Jaunakas Zinas, 1 October 1931, p. 2; Eduards Calitis, “Ko teiks musu nacionalisti?” Pedeja Bridi, 9 September 1931, p. 1.
59. Eduards Calitis, “Jauna zvaigzne,” Pedeja Bridi, 10 March 1931, p. 1.
60. Ernests Brastins, “Tautas gars un laika gars,” Briva Zeme, 12 March 1932, p. 6.
61. Edvarts Virza, “Latvijas atjaunosana,” Briva Zeme, 17 December 1932, p. 8.
62. Edvarts Virza, “Gadam beidzoties,” Briva Zeme, 31 December 1932, p. 1.
63. Leonids Breikss, “Ticibas atjaunosana,” Latvis, 31 October 1933, p. 1.
64. Ernests Brastins, “Demokratija un naciokratija,” Briva Zeme, 27 June 1931, p. 5.
65. Ibid. Importantly, Brastins's statements were not just a representation of some extremist fringe. A well-known academic and not a political radical at all, Aleksandrs Dauge recommended creating a state that would not be led by elected and self-interested politicians or “masses” as in democracy, but by “the best natural leaders” (“Par valstisku kulturu,” Balss, 1 January 1925, p. 1).
66. As Zanis Unams wrote, “Let's search for the most honest, true, deep: let's find great persons and glorify them, then we ourselves and our nation will become great” (“Diletantisms,” Briva Tevija, 6 October 1926, pp. 1–2).
67. Edvarts Virza, “Cela uz jauno dogmu,” Briva Zeme, 1 April 1933, p. 8. He also wrote in 1931 that in order to protect the Latvian state it was necessary to continuously struggle against any ideas that could potentially pose a threat to it (“Valsts un zeme,” Aizsargs, 4 January 1931, p. 3).
68. See, for example, Aleksandrs Plensners, “Ernests Blanks—latviesu tautas kustiba,” Latvijas Sargs, 19 September 1921, p. 5.
69. Atis Kenins, “Vienotas tautas griba un kultura parvares visu,” Jaunakas Zinas, 2 October 1933, p. 6.
70. Edvarts Virza wrote, “The rule of one conviction is our savior … It has been shown that in all times, people have obediently served the higher idea” (“Ziemassvetku pardomas,” Briva Zeme, 23 December 1933, p. 8).
71. As early as 1921 Ivande Kaija described the new state as “the ideal state of culture. The flow of creative evolution carries us towards this ideal … Could not we all, who belong to the Latvian people, unite around this ideal? … To work in order to achieve this ideal is the responsibility of every one of us now” (“Jauna 1921. gada,” Latvijas Sargs, 1 January 1921, p. 1).
72. Aleksandrs Plensners, “Politika un kultura,” Rigas Zinas, 12 March 1925, p. 2.
73. Atis Kenins, “Ar valsts karogu par naciju un kulturu” Centra Balss, 31 December 1930, p. 1.
74. Aleksandrs Plensners, “Macaties tapt!,” Latvijas Sargs, 19 September 1921, p. 5.
75. Aleksandrs Plensners, “Par godigu politiku,” Kurzemes Vards, 8 September 1931, p. 2.
76. Haralds Eldgasts, “Personiba un demokratija,” Kurzemes Vards, 10 June 1923, p. 1.
77. Haralds Eldgasts, “Tautas atmodu gaidot,” Kurzemes Vards, 15 March 1925, pp. 1–2.
78. Edvarts Virza, “Partiju pienakumi un politiska audzinasana,” Briva Zeme, 19 October 1928, p. 3.
79. Karlis Skalbe, “Latviesu koalicija,” Jaunakas Zinas, 30 January 1932, p. 1.
80. Janis Akuraters, “Musu jaunatnes ideali,” Latvijas Vestnesis, 19 December 1923, p. 1.
81. Karlis Upitis, “Kultura un politika,” Latvijas Sargs, 17 October 1921, p. 2.
82. Janis Akuraters, “Par nacionalam cinam,” Jaunakas Zinas, 10 October 1921, p. 9. See also Edvarts Virza, “Latviesu misija,” Briva Zeme, 6 June 1931, p. 6. A similar argument was expressed by Haralds Eldgasts in “Haralda Eldgasta domas par musu tagadnes svarigakiem sabiedriski-kulturaliem uzdevumiem,” Kurzemes Vards, 20 December 1922, p. 2.
83. Ernests Blanks, “Latvju tautas galvenais uzdevums,” Liepajas Atbalss, 23 April 1930, p. 1.
84. Ernests Blanks, “No lielam kulturas certibam lidz galigam apsikumam,” Latvijas Sargs, 8 August 1932, p. 2; “Latviesu demokratija ir naidiga vadonibas idejai,” Latvijas Sargs, 29 August 1932, p. 2.
85. Edvarts Virza, “Dazadas pardomas,” Briva Zeme, 7 May 1932, p. 6.
86. Ernests Blanks, “Latviesu varasvirs,” Briva Zeme, 9 December 1933, p. 12.
87. Viktors Eglitis, “Vai var nakotni paredzet?” Labietis, Vol. 3, 1933, pp. 39–40.
88. For example, Ernests Blanks wrote, “We have to replace the vices of democracy with completely new virtues” (“Kustiba un vadonis,” Latvijas Sargs, 6 November 1933, p. 2). Leonids Breikss felt that “proudly and bravely grows in the people the flow of new spirit and new will to work. It will destroy the mills of today's politicians” (“Ticibas atjaunosana,” Latvis, 31 October 1933, p. 1.) Edvarts Virza wrote, “Everything in this country needs to be changed in order to save the national dignity and the statehood itself” (“Ziemassvetku pardomas,” Briva Zeme, 23 December 1933, p. 8.)
89. Aleksandrs Dauge, “Par valstisku kulturu,” Balss, 1 January 1925, p. 1.
90. Karlis Upitis, “Kultura un politika,” Latvijas Sargs, 17 October 1921, p. 2.