The Kenesary Kasymov rebellion (1837–1847): A national-liberation movement or “a protest of restoration”?

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Notes

1. M. K. Kozbaev, Natsional'no-osvoboditel'naia bor'ba Kazakhskogo naroda pod predvoditel'stvom Kenesary Kasymova (sbornik dokumentov) (Almaty, 1996), p. 27; Steven Sabol, “Kazakh Resistance to Russian Colonization: Interpreting the Kenesary Kasymov Revolt, 1837–1847,” Otan Tarikhy, No. 3, 2002, p. 24; Martha Brill Olcott, The Kazakhs, 2nd edn (Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Press, 1995), p. 64.

2. The idea that the parameters of modern Kazakh nationhood were essentially a Soviet creation has dominated historiography in the West since the publishing of Ronald Suny's path-breaking books at the end of the 1990s. See Shirin Akiner, The Formation of Kazakh Identity: From Tribe to Nation-State (London: Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1995) 34.

3. Steven Sabol, “Kazakh Resistance,” p. 32.

4. E. S. Syzdykova, “Voprosy istorii Kazakhstana v trudakh ofitserov general'nogo shtaba Rossiiskoi Imperii,” Ph.D. dissertation, Eurasian University of Astana, 2002, p. 82.

5. For an example of one of such “pre-Russian” unrests see A. Etsel' and G. Vagner, Puteshestvie po Sibiri i prilegaiushchim k nei stranam Tsentral'noi Azii po opisaniiam T.U. Atkinsonom, A.T. Fon Middendorfom, G. Radtse i drugimi (St Petersburg, 1865) 289.

6. E. Bekmakhanov, Prisoedinenie Kazakhstana k Rossii (Moscow, Izdatel’stvo AN SSSR, 1957), p. 3.

7. S. D. Afendiiarov, Istoriia Kazakhstana (s drevneishikh vremen), Vol. 1 (Alma-Ata: Kazakhstanstoe Kraevoe Izdatel'stvo, 1935), p. 136.

8. Ibid.

9. Ibid., p. 167.

10. E. B. Bekmakhanov, Kazakhstan v 20–40 gody XX veka (Alma-Ata: Kazakh University Press, 1992 [1947]).

11. Steven Sabol, Russian Colonization and the Genesis of Kazak National Consciousness (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), p. 123.

12. A. Kuzembaiuly and E. Abil, Istoriia Respubliki Kazakhstan (Almaty, 2002), p. 127.

13. Kh. Aubakirova, “Uchastie Sibirskogo Kazachestva v podavlenii natsional'no-osvoboditel'nogo dvizheniia Kazakhskogo naroda pod predvoditel'stvom sultanov Sarzhana i Kenesary,” Ph.D. dissertation, Eurasian University of Astana, 2000, p. 67.

14. Aubakirova, “Uchastie Sibirskogo Kazachestva”, p. 110.

15. Zh. Mazhitova, “Voennoe prisutstvie Rossii v Severo-Zapadnom Kazakhstane v XVII—nachale XIX vv.,” Ph.D. dissertation, Karaganda State University, 1997, p. 140.

16. S. Maduanov, “Vzaimootnosheniia Kazakhov s drugimi sosednimi narodami Tsentral'noi Azii v XVIII—nachale XX vekov,” Ph.D. dissertation, Almaty State University, 1997, p. 105.

17. Geoffrey Wheeler, “Russian Conquest and Colonization of Central Asia,” in Russian Imperialism from Ivan the Great to the Revolution ed. Taras Hunczak (Lanham MD: University Press of America, 2000), p. 266; N. G. Apollova, Khoziaistvennoe osvoenie priirtysh'ia v kontse XVI pervoi polovine XIX v. (Moscow: Nauka, 1976); M. O. Auezov, Istoriia Kazakhskoi SSR, Vol. 1 (Alma-Ata: Izdatel'stvo Akademii nauk Kazakhstoi SSR, 1957); M. S. Mukanov, Etnicheskaia territoriia Kazakhov v XVIII—nachale XX vekov (Alma-Ata: Kazakhstan, 1991); S. Z. Zimanov, Obshchestvennyi stroi Kazakhov v pervoi polovine XIX v. (Alma-Ata: Izdatel'stvo Akademii nauk Kazakhskoi SSR, 1958).

18. “Sotsial'no-ekonomicheskie i istoricheskie predposylki i progressivnye znacheniia prisoedineniia Kazakhstana k Rossii,” Mezhvuzovskii sbornik, (Alma-Ata: Kazakh Pedagogical Institute, 1982), p. 4.

19. Maduanov, “Vzaimootnosheniia Kazakhov,” p. 65.

20. M. P. Viatkin, Ocherki po istorii Kazakhskoi SSR (Leningrad, 1941), quoted in Olcott, The Kazakhs,p. 44.

21. Michael Khodarkovsky, Russia's Steppe Frontier: The Making of a Colonial Empire, 1500–1800 (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2002), p. 8.

22. Ibid.

23. Olcott, The Kazakhs, p. 66.

24. Michael Rywkin, Russia in Central Asia (New York: Collier Books, 1963), pp. 17–19.

25. Steven Sabol, “Kazakh Resistance,” p. 24.

26. This phenomenon is aptly described in Bruce Grant, In the Soviet House of Culture. A Century of Perestoikas (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995) and Yuri Slezkine, Arctic Mirrors, Russia and the Small Peoples of the North (Ithaca, NY and London: Cornell University Press, 1994).

27. Sultan Dzhan-Sultan Chuvakov, “Deistvuiushchee polozhenie ob upravlenii v stepnykh oblastiakh,” Otan Tarikhy, No. 4, 2002, p. 26.

28. A. I. Maksheev, Istoricheskii obzor Turkestana i nastupatel'nogo dvizheniia v nego russkikh (St. Petersburg, 1890), p. 104.

29. The term “Siberian Kirgiz” was used to distinguish the Kazakhs of the Middle Horde from the Younger Horde Kazakhs, who were called “Orenburg Kirgiz;” see Virginia Martin, “Barimta: Nomadic Custom, Imperial Crime,” in Daniel R. Brower and Edward J. Lazzerini, eds, Imperial Borderlands and Peoples, 1700–1917 (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1997), p. 266.

30. Polnoe sobranie zakonov Rossiiskoi imperii (hereafter PSZ), Ser. 1, Vol. 38, No. 29,127, pp. 4–9, 15–18.

31. PSZ, Ser. 1, Vol. 38, No. 29,127, pp. 19–20.

32. PSZ, Ser. 1, Vol. 38, No. 29,127, pp. 36, 48.

33. PSZ, Ser. 1, Vol. 38, No. 29,127, p. 25.

34. M. G. Masevich, Materialy po istorii politicheskogo stroia Kazakhstana (so vremeni prisoedineniia Kazakhstana k Rossii do Velikoi Oktiabr'skoi Sotsialisticheskoi Revoliutsii) (Alma-Ata: Izdatel'stvo Akademii nauk Kazakhskoi SSR, 1960), p. 137.

35. Ibid., pp. 140–141.

36. M. Zh. Abdirov, “Voenno-Kazach'ia kolonizatsiia Kazakhstana (konets XVI veka—nachalo XX veka). Opyt istoriko-evoliutsionnogo analiza,” Ph.D. dissertation (Almaty: Kazakhstan State University, 1997), p. 411.

37. Tsentral'nyi Gosudarstvennyi Arkhiv Respubliki Kazakhstan (The Central State Archive of the Republic of Kazakhstan) (hereafter TsGA RK), f. 338, op. 1, d. 353.

38. Kozybaev, Natsional'no-osvoboditel'naia bor'ba, p. 148.

39. TsGA RK, f. 4, op. 1, d. 4957, 1. 11

40. TsGA RK, f. 338, op. 1, d. 71, ll. 41–43.

41. A. G. Serebnrennikov, Sbornik materialov dlia istorii zavoevaniia Turkestanskogo kraia, Vol. 4 (Tashkent, 1914), p. 144, quoted in E. B. Bekmakhanov, Kazakhstan v 20–40 gody XX veka (Alma-Ata: Kazakh University Press, 1992 [1947]), p. 261.

42. Aubakirova, “Uchastie Sibirskogo Kazachestva,” p. 72; E. Valikhanov, “Politicheskaia deiatel'nost' Kenesary Kasymova,” Otan Tarikhy, No. 3, 2002, p. 48.

43. N. A. Sereda, “Bunt kirgizskogo sultana Kenesary Kasymova,” Vestnik Evropy, No. 8, 1870, p. 73.

44. E. Smirnov, Sultan Kenesary i Sadyk: Pererabotka rasskaza Akhmeta Kenesarina (Tashkent, 1883), p. 8; Murat Abdirov, Zavoevanie Kazakhstana tsarskoi Rossiei i bor'ba Kazakhskogo naroda za nezavisimost' (iz istorii voenno-kazach'ei kolonizatsii kraia v kontse XVI—nachale XX vekov (Astana: Elorda, 2000), p. 171; Zh. Kasymbaev, Kenesary Khan (Almaty, 1993), pp. 57–65; Zh. Artykbaev, Istoriia Kazakhstana (Almaty: Ghylym, 2004), p. 99; Natsional'no-osvoboditel'naia bor'ba Kazakhskogo naroda pod predvoditel'stvom Kenesary Kasymova (sbornik dokumentov) (Almaty, 1996), p. 16.

45. Olcott, The Kazakhs, (second edition) p. 66.

46. A. K. Akishev, Istoriia Kazakhstana s drevneishikh vremen do nashikh dnei (ocherk) (Almaty, 1993), p. 198

47. TsGA RK, f. 374, op. 1, d. 2920, ll. 40–40 ob.

48. E. Sydykov, “Khan Kene—Initiator of Revival of the Kazakh Statehood,” Otan Tarikhy, No. 3, 2002, p. 43.

49. Kazakhsko—Russkie otnosheniia v XVIII–XIX vekakh (1771–1867): Sbornik dokumentov i materialov (Alma-Ata: Nauka, 1964), p. 144.

50. M. G. Masevich, Materialy po istorii,p. 264.

51. N. Musabekova, “Vremennoe polozhenie 1867–1868 gg.: Problema teritorial'nykh otnoshenii,” Voprosy Istorii Kazakhstana. Issledovaniia molodykh uchenykh (Almaty), Vol. 3, 2002, p. 70.

52. A. Levshin estimates the number of Kazakhs as between 2,500,000 and 3,000,000 people at the beginning of the nineteenth century. See T. I. Sultanov, “Gosudarstvenno-politicheskoe razvitie v XVI—seredine XVIII v,” in M. Kh. Abuseitova ed., Istoriia Kazakhstana i Tsentral'noi Azii (Almaty, Daik Press, 2001), p. 281.

53. A. F. Riazanov, Sorok let bor'by za natsional'nuiu nezavisimost, pp. 200–202, quoted in Abdirov, “Voenno-Kazach'ia kolonizatsiia,” p. 265.

54. Aubakirova, “Uchastie Sibirskogo Kazachestva,” p. 107.

55. Narody Rossii, Kirgizy (St Petersburg, 1880), pp. 16–18.

56. Etsel', Puteshestvie po Sibiri, p. 450.

57. TsGA RK, f. 345, op. 1, d. 1381, ll. 1–2.

58. V. Grigor'ev, “Orenburgskie Kirgizy. Ikh chestnost' i umenie v torgovykh delakh,” Narodnyi Vestnik, 1864, p. 39.

59. According to Major General B. M. Bronevskii, the destruction caused by constant warfare between the Kazakh clans pushed them to take the oath of allegiance to the Russian state. See B. M. Bronevskii, “Zapiski B. M. Bronevskogo o kirgizakh,” Otechestvennye zapiski, No. 119, 1830, p. 179.

60. TsGA RK, f. 338, op. 1, d. 721, ll. 1–1ob.

61. TsGA RK, f. 338, op. 1, d. 520, ll. 1–2.

62. N. I. Krasovskii, Oblast' Sibirskikh Kirgizov (St Petersburg, 1868), p. 60.

63. Narody Rossii, p. 3.

64. A. I. Levshin, Opisanie kirgiz-kazach'ikh ili kirgiz-kaisatskikh ord i stepei (St Petersburg, 1832), p. 30.

65. I. Kraft, Sbornik uzakonenii o kirgizakh stepnykh oblastei (Orenburg, 1898), p. 6.

66. L. Meier, Kirgizskaia step' Orenburgskogo vedomstva (St Petersburg, 1865), p. 3.

67. Michael Khodarkovsky, Russia's Steppe Frontier: The Making of a Colonial Empire, 1500–1800 (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2002), p. 12.

68. Kazakhsko—Russkie otnosheniia, pp. 299, 300.

69. S. Asfendiiarov, Istoriia Kazakhstana (s drevneishikh vremen) (Alma-Ata, 1993), p. 114.

70. Olcott, The Kazakhs, p. 27.

71. Akishev, Istoriia Kazakhstana, pp. 216, 217.

72. E. B. Bekmakhanov, quoted by Olcott, The Kazakhs, p. 66.

73. Natsional'no-osvoboditel'naia bor'ba, p. 11; N. Sereda, Bunt Kirgizskogo sultana Kenesary Kasymova (1838–1847) (second edition) (Atyrau: Dialog, 1992 [1870]), p. 73; Zh. Kasymbaev, Poslednii pokhod Khana Kenesary i ego gibel' (Almaty: Ana tili, 2002), pp. 57–58.

74. E. B. Bekmakhanov, Kazakhstan in 20–40 gody XX veka (Alma-Ata, 1947), p. 209.

75. E. Valikhanov, “Politicheskaia deiatel'nost' Kenesary Kasymova,” Otan Tarikhy, No. 3, 2002, p. 45.

76. Natsional'no-osvoboditel'naia bor'ba, 15.

77. E. B. Bekmakhanov, Kazakhstan v 20–40 gody, p. 283.

78. M. Mikhailov, “Kirgizy,” in Literaturnaia biblioteka (St Petersburg, 1867), p. 283.

79. Olcott, The Kazakhs, p. 65.

80. Kazakhsko—Russkie otnosheniia, p. 253.

81. Kasymbaev, Poslednii Pokhod Khana, p. 71.

82. Gosudarstvennyi Arkhiv Omskoi Oblasti, f. 3, op.1, d. 299, ll. 43–44.

83. Natsional'no-osvoboditel'naia bor'ba, p. 11.

84. Proshloe Kazakhstana v istochnikakh i materialakh (Alma-Ata and Moscow, 1936), p. 221; Asfendiiarov, Istoriia Kazakhstana, p. 168.

85. Natsional'no-osvoboditel'naia bor'ba, p. 11; Asfendiiarov gives similar numbers of Kenesary's tulenguts. According to his estimations, Kenesary had about 1,000 tulenguts to compare with his grandfather Ablai's 5,000 tulenguts. See Asfendiiarov, Istoriia Kazakhstana (1993), p. 122.

86. TsGA RK, f. 374, op.1, d. 162, ll. 427–427 ob.

87. TsGA RK, f. 374, op.1, d. 627, ll. 3–6 ob.

88. TsGA RK, f. 338, op.1, d. 760, ll. 33–34.

89. Asfendiiarov, Istoriia Kazakhstana (1993), p. 122.

90. Etsel', Puteshestvie po Sibiri, p. 470.

91. Kazakhsko—Russkie otnosheniia, p. 303.

92. Ibid.

93. Olcott, The Kazakhs, p. 66.

94. Asfendiiarov, Istoriia Kazakhstana (1993), p. 169.

95. TsGA RK, f. 4, op. 1, d. 4412. ll. 4–5 ob.

96. TsGA RK, f. 4, op. 1, d. 2009, ll. 172–173 ob.

97. TsGA RK, f. 374, op. 1, d. 162, ll. 595–595 ob.

98. R. Soboleva, “Introduction,” in A. Kenesarin, Sultany Kenesary i Syzdyk (second edition) (Alma-Ata: Zhalyn, 1992), p. 8.

99. TsGA Respubliki Kazakhstan, f. 4, op. 1, d. 4336, l. 15 ob.

100. Sereda, Bunt Kirgizskogo sultana, p. 48.

101. Ibid., p. 49.

102. TsGA Respubliki Kazakhstan, f. 338, op. 1, d. 3, ll. 196–198.

103. Natsional'no-osvoboditel'naia bor'ba Kazakhskogo naroda pod predvoditel'stvom Kenesary Kasymova (sbornik dokumentov) (Almaty, 1996), p. 223.

104. TsGA Respubliki Kazakhstan, f. 4, op. 1, d. 385, ll. 108–111 ob.

105. TsGA RK, f. 374, op. 1, d. 4349, l. 10; N. E. Bekmakhanova, Rossiia i Kazakhstan v osvoboditel'nom dvizhenii. Posledniaia chetvert' XVIII—pervaia polovina XIX veka (Moscow: Institut Rossiiskoi Istorii, 1996).

106. TsGA RK, f. 4, op. 1, d. 2328, ll. 170–171 ob.

107. Sereda, Bunt Kirgizskogo sultana, p. 105.

108. TsGA RK, f. 4, op.1, d. 2328, ll. 30–32 ob.

109. Kenesarin, Sultany Kenesary i Syzdyk, p. 19.

110. Kasymbaev, Poslednii pokhod Khana, pp. 57–58.

111. TsGA RK, f. 338, op. 1, d. 409, ll. 6–7, 12, 14.

112. TsGA RK, f. 374, op. 1, d. 340, l. 1.

113. TsGA RK, f. 374, op. 1, d. 3994, ll. 4–5.

114. TsGA RK, f. 338, op. 1, d. 424, ll. 3–3 ob.

115. Gosudarstvennyi Arkhiv Omskoi Oblasti, f. 67, op.1, d. 248, ll. 56 ob.–58.

116. Olcott, The Kazakhs, pp. 45, 65.

117. TsGA RK, f. 4, op. 1, d. 2232, ll. 312–313.

118. Steven Sabol, “Kazakh Resistance,” p. 26.

119. Natsional'no-osvoboditel'naia bor'ba, p. 19.

120. Steven Sabol, “Kazakh Resistance,” p. 34.

121. Kasymbaev, Poslednii Pokhod, p. 171.

122. Ibid., p. 172.

123. Aubakirova, “Uchastie Sibirskogo Kazachestva,” p. 97.

124. Soboleva, “Introduction,” p. 9.

125. Sereda, Bunt Kirgizskogo sultana, (1992 [1870]), p. 163.

126. Valikhanov, “Politicheskaia deiatel'nost',” p. 48.

127. V. Z. Galiev, Dvizhushchie sily narodno-osvoboditel'noi bor'by pod predvoditel'stvom Kenesary Kasymova, Ablai—Kenesary (Almaty, 2001), p. 108.

128. Natsional'no-osvoboditel'naia bor'ba, p. 10; M. Koigeldiev, “Rebellion of Kenesary Kasymov in a Context of Anti-colonial Movement of the Peoples of Central Asia,” Otan Tarikhy, No. 3, 2002, p. 14.

129. Valikhanov, “Politicheskaia deiatel'nost',” p. 44.

130. E. B. Bekmakhanov, Kazakhstan v 20–40 gody, (second edition) (Alma-Ata: Kazakh University Press, 1992 [1947]), p. 280.

131. TsGA RK, f. 338, op. 1, d. 6, ll. 198–199 ob.

132. Khodarkovsky, Russia's Steppe Frontier, pp. 13, 31.

133. A. Semenov, Sredniaia Aziia (Moscow, 1911), p. 21.

134. A. N. Sedel'nikov, “Istoricheskie sud'by Kirgizskogo kraia i kul'turnye ego uspekhi,” in V. P. Semenov, ed., “Rossiia: Polnoe geograficheskoe opisanie nashego otechestva. Nastol'naia i dorozhnaia kniga dlia russkikh liudei,” Vol. 18, Kirgizskii krai (St Petersburg, 1903), p. 144. Aul—the migratory unit of the Kazakhs ruled by elders. Auls generally consisted of several extended families drawn from the same clan.

135. I. Andreev, Opisanie Srednei Ordy Kirgiz-Kaisakov (Almaty, 1998 [1789]), p. 32.

136. V. Grigor'ev, “The Russian Policy Regarding Central Asia. An Historical Sketch,” in Eugene Schuyler, Turkistan, Vol. 2 (St. Petersburg, 1877), p. 405.

137. S. D. Asfendiarov ed., Proshloe Kazakhstana v istochnikakh i materialakh (V vek do nashei ery—XVIII vek nashei ery) (Almaty (1997 [1935]), p. 229.

138. Krasovskii, Oblast' Sibirskikh Kirgizov, p. 70.

139. Asfendiarov, ed., Proshloe Kazakhstana (1997 [1935]), p. 229.

140. Sultan Dzhan-Sultan Chuvakov, “Deistvuiushchee Polozhenie ob upravlenii v stepnykh oblastiakh,” Otan Tarikhy, No. 4, 2002, p. 26.

141. I. I. Kraft, Sbornik uzakonenii o kirgizakh stepnykh oblastei (Orenburg, 1898), p. 21.

142. S. Bol'shoi, “Zapiski doktora Savvy Bol'shogo o prikliucheniiakh ego v plenu u kigiz-kaisakov v 1803 i 1804 godakh s zamechaniiami o kirgiz-kaisatskoi stepi,” Syn Otechestva, Part 80 (St Petersburg, 1822), p. 58.

143. Kazakhsko—Russkie otnosheniia, p. 145.

144. E. B. Bekmakhanov, Kazakhstan v 20–40 gody, XX veka (second edition), (Alma-Ata: Kazakh University Press, 1992 [1947]), p. 283.

145. Ibid.

146. Khodarkovsky, Russia's Steppe Frontier, p. 30.

147. Elizabeth Bacon, Central Asians under Russian Rule (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1980), p. 37.

148. George Demko, The Russian Colonization of Kazakhstan, 1896—1916 (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1969), p. 26.

149. Olcott, The Kazakhs, p. 14.

150. Ibid., p. 15

151. Khodarkovsky, Russia's Steppe Frontier, p. 31.

152. Ibid., p. 153

153. Muravin, Gladyshev, Poezdka iz Orska v Khivu i obratno, sovershennaia v 1740–1741 godakh poruchikom Gladyshevym i geodezistom Muravinym (St Petersburg, 1851), p. 8.

154. Natsional'no-osvoboditel'naia bor'ba, p. 18.

155. Sereda, Bunt Kirgizskogo sultana, p. 73.

156. Artykbaev, Istoriia Kazakhstana, p. 99

157. E. B. Bekmakhanov, Kazakhstan in 20–40 gody, XX veka (second edition), (Alma-Ata: Kazakh University Press, 1992 [1947]), p. 241.

158. V. I. Lebedev. ed., Materialy po istorii Kazakhskoi SSR (1785—1828) (Moscow: Akademiia Nauk SSSR, 1940), p. 7.

159. Asfendiarov, ed. Proshloe Kazakhstana v istochnikakh, p. 306.

160. Artykbaev, Istoriia Kazakhstana (Almaty, 2004), p. 99.

161. E. B. Bekmakhanov, Kazakhstan v 20–40 gody, XX veka (second edition), (Alma-Ata: Kazakh University Press, 1992 [1947]), p. 283.

162. Masevich, Materialy po istorii, p. 265; A. Kuzembaiuly and E. Abil, Istoriia Respubliki Kazakhstan (Almaty, 2002), p. 118

163. Bacon, Central Asians, p. 98

164. N. Apollova, Khoziaistvennoe osvoenie Priirtysh'ia v kontse XVI—pervoi polovine XIX v. (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo Nauka, 1976), p. 33

165. Masevich, Materialy po istorii,p. 265.

166. Asfendiarov ed., Proshloe Kazakhstana, p. 234.

167. T. M. Kul'teleev ed., Materialy po Kazakhskomu obychnomu pravu (Almaty, 1998), p. 6.

168. TsGA RK, f. 338, d. 325; M. G. Masevich, Materialy po istorii, p. 153.

169. TsGA RK, f. 338, d. 325.

170. Ibid.

171. Or, as it was formulated in the Siberian Committee's report, “not to cause different suspicions among the people of the steppe.” See TsGA Respubliki Kazakhstan, f. 338, d. 196.

172. TsGA RK, f. 338, op. 1, d. 797, l. 10.

173. The Decree of 1846 ordered Siberian Cossacks to settle in the steppe. In addition to them, 5,000 Ukrainian peasants were allowed to build houses and start farming on Kazakh lands. As a result, 13 settlements were soon established. By 1904 the number of Russian and Ukrainian peasants in the steppe exceeded 140,000. See G. E. Katanaev, Kirgizskii vopros v Sibirskom Kazach'em voiske (Omsk: Tipografiia Okruzhnogo Shtaba, 1904), p. 10.

174. A. Shemanskii, “Voennaia istoriia Russkogo dvizheniia v Sredniuiu Aziiu,” Sredniaia Aziia (September–October 1910), p. 121.

175. E. Valikhanov, Politicheskaia deiatel'nost', p. 48; Akishev, Istoriia Kazakhstana, p. 203.

176. The previously independent Elder Horde accepted a Russian protectorate in the period between 1845 and 1847. See P. P. Semenov, Kirgiz-Kaisaki (St Petersburg, 1865).