Contingent nationalist dominance: Intra-Serb challenges to the Serb Democratic Party

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Notes

*An earlier version of this article was presented at the 7th international seminar, “Democracy and Human Rights in Multiethnic Societies”, Konjic, Bosnia, 12–17 July 2004 and published by Kakanien Revisited, November 2004. Thanks to Sumantra Bose and the two anonymous referees for their very helpful comments.

1. “Non-ethnic parties” are defined as parties that do not compete on the ethnic cleavage and direct their appeals to all ethnic groups. “Non-ethnic forces” include these parties as well as intellectuals and party deputies who insist on retaining a non-ethnic definition of politics.

2. In this article, the terms “national” and “ethnic” will be used interchangeably. In the Yugoslav context, the most appropriate term to use would be “national” rather than “ethnic,” but this presents some linguistic problems when referring to dynamics within and between the national communities: “intra-ethnic” or “inter-ethnic” is less open to misunderstanding than “intra-national” or especially “inter-national.”

3. See e.g. Brendan O'Leary, “The Limits to Coercive Consociationalism in Northern Ireland,” Political Studies, Vol. 18, No. 4, 1989, pp. 695–714; Adriano Pappalardo, “The Conditions for Consociational Democracy: A Logical and Empirical Critique,” European Journal of Political Research, Vol. 9, No. 4, 1981, pp. 365–390; Paul Mitchell, “Competition in an Ethnic Dual Party System,” Ethnic and Racial Studies, Vol. 18, No. 4, 1985, p. 779; Donald Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985), p. 359.

4. Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict, pp. 306–307, 318, 333.

5. V. P. Gagnon, Jr, “Ethnic Conflict as an Intra-group Phenomenon: A Preliminary Framework,” Revija za sociologiju, Vol. 26, Nos 1–2, 1995, p. 88.

6. Neven Andjelić, Bosnia-Herzegovina: The End of a Legacy (London: Frank Cass, 2003), pp. 61, 69; Kemal Kurspahić, Prime Time Crime: Balkan Media in War and Peace (Washington: United States Institute of Peace, 2003), p. 89

7. Ibid., p. 131.

8. Ibid., p. 160.

9. Ibid., pp. 161–162.

10. Ibid., pp. 180–181; Mirko Pejanović, Through Bosnian Eyes: The Political Memories of a Bosnian Serb (Sarajevo: TKD Šahinpašić, 2002), p. 30.

11. Pejanović, Through Bosnian Eyes, p. 30.

12. Andjelić, Bosnia-Herzegovina, p. 213.

13. B. Banjac, “Stranka koja ukida strah,” Borba, 16 July 1990, p. 3

14. Xavier Bougarel, “Bosnia and Hercegovina: State and Communitarianism,” in David Dyker and Ivan Vejvoda, eds, Yugoslavia and After (London and New York: Longman, 1996), p. 98.

15. See e.g. Milorag Vućelić, “Srbi se najsporije bude,” Borba, 23 July 1990, p. 5; HDZ BiH programme, in Miroslav Prstojević, ed., BiH Izbori'90 (Sarajevo: Oslobodenje public, 1990), pp. 44–45.

16. “Veliki skup SDS,” Borba, 1–2 September 1990, p. 12.

17. Andjelić, Bosnia-Herzegovina, p. 178

18. Ibid., pp. 159, 174.

19. Author's interview with Tatjana Ljujić-Mijatović, Serb member of the war-time Bosnian presidency, Sarajevo, 2 July 2004.

20. Manoljo Tomić, “Istorijsko ‘Ne’ Bosni,” Slobodna Bosna, 7 November 1991, p. 3.

21. Pejanović, Through Bosnian Eyes, p. 50

22. Andjelić, Bosnia-Herzegovina, p. 167

23. Electoral programme, in Prstojević, BiH Izbori'90, pp. 118–120. See also Tanjug, “Srbi prijete pripajenjem,” Vjesnik, 26 October 1990, p. 3.

24. Milan Milošević, “See You in the Next War,” Vreme News Digest, No. 10, 1991, <http://www.scc.rutgers.edu/serbian%5Fdigest/>.

25. Author's interview with Slobodan Nagradić, professor, Faculty of Political Science, University of Banja Luka, Sarajevo, 19 November 2003.

26. Election programme, in Prstojević, BiH Izbori'90, pp. 113–115.

27. Pejanović, Through Bosnian Eyes, p. 37

28. Overview of polls, in Suad Arnautović, Izbori u Bosni i Hercegovini '90: Analiza izbornog procesa (Sarajevo: Promocult, 1996), p. 56.

29. Ibid., pp. 57–58. The 10.2% translates into 14.3% if only decided voters are included.

30. Ibid., pp. 54–56.

31. Vlatka Krsmanović, “National Parties in Bosnia: Memories of a Common Past,” Vreme News Digest, No. 42, 1992, <http://www.scc.rutgers.edu/serbian%5Fdigest/>.

32. Testimony of Robert Donia, “Transcripts, Brdjanin and Zupljanin (IT-99-36),” ICTY, 30 January 2002, p. 1171.

33. See e.g. ICTY, “Judgement: Prosecutor vs. Blagoje Simić, Miroslav Tadić, Simo Zarić (IT-95-9-T),” 17 October 2003, para. 467.

34. Author's interview with Slobodan Nagradić, Sarajevo, 19 November 2003

35. Author's interview with Miodrag Živanović, Founder of the Liberal Party, Banja Luka, Bosnia, 22 October 2003.

36. Testimony of anonymous witness, “Transcripts, Dusko Tadic (IT-94-I-T),” ICTY, 4 June 1996, pp. 1807–1808.

37. Author's interview with Nikola Poplašen, Founder of the SRS in Bosnia, Banja Luka, Bosnia, 3 December 2003.

38. Author's interview with Dragutin Ilić, Founder of the SPRS, Banja Luka, Bosnia, 23 October 2003.

39. Author's interview with Miodrag Živanović, Banja Luka, Bosnia, 22 October 2003.

40. Author's interview with Ognjen Tadić, Secretary general of the SRS, Banja Luka, Bosnia, 7 November 2003.

41. Author's interview with Miodrag Živanović, Banja Luka, Bosnia, 22 October 2003.

42. Ibid.

43. Author's interview with Igor Radojicić, spokesman for the SNSD, former spokesman for the SPRS, Banja Luka, Bosnia, 1 December 2003.

44. Perica Vučinić and Pajo Rovac, “Playing on the Reformists Ticket,” Vreme News Digest, No. 175, 1995, <http://www.scc.rutgers.edu/serbian%5Fdigest/>.

45. Perica Vučinić, “Capital's Watchtower,” Vreme News Digest, No. 209, 1995.

46. Filip Švarm and Dragan Dimović, “Our Man in Pale,” Vreme News Digest, No. 172, 1995; Vučinić and Rovac, “Playing on the Reformists Ticket.”

47. Author's interview with Dragutin Ilić, Banja Luka, Bosnia, 23 October 2003.

48. Nenad Lj. Stefanović, “Buying Time,” Vreme News Digest, No. 168, 1994.

49. Miloš Vasić and Filip Švarm, “Storm over Bosnia,” Vreme News Digest, No. 163, 1994.

50. Author's interview with Slobodan Nagradić, Sarajevo, 19 November 2003; Miloš Vasić, “The President and His Generals,” Vreme News Digest, No. 202, 1995; Obrad Kesić, “Politics Power and Decision Making in the Serb Republic,” Problems of Post-Communism, March/April 1996, p. 59.

51. Nenad Lj. Stefanović, “The Pugnacious Commander,” Vreme News Digest, No. 87, 1993.

52. Filip Švarm, “Civilian–Military Games,” Vreme News Digest, No. 186, 1995; Bougarel, “Bosnia and Hercegovina,” pp. 111–112.

53. “Chronology 1995: August 1 through August 31,” Croatian International Relations Review, Vol. 11, Nos 30–31, 2002, p. 54.

54. “Generalni ne prihvataju Karadžića za vrhovnog komandanta,” Politika, 7 August 1995, p. 1.

55. Tim Judah, The Serbs: History, Myth and the Destruction of Yugoslavia (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2000), p. 29. See also Misha Glenny, The Fall of Yugoslavia (London: Penguin Books, 1996), p. 263.

56. Dragan Todorović, “Radic in Center,” Vreme News Digest, No. 246, 1996.

57. Filip Švarm, “Kasagic Fired,” Vreme News Digest, No. 234, 1996.

58. Ibid.

59. Dragan Todorović, “I Won't Keep Quiet,” Vreme News Digest, No. 246, 1996.

60. Mira Marković is Milošević's wife.

61. John Pomfret, “Bosnia's Serb's Leader Stages Show of Defiance,” Washington Post, 10 February 1996, p. 1.

62. Perica Vučinić, “Conflicting Forces,” Vreme News Digest, No. 254, 1996.

63. Dragan Stavljanin, “Belgrade or Pale,” Vreme News Digest, No. 227, 1996.

64. Nemanja Stefanović, “What Do Serb Parties Have to Offer?” AIM Press, Banja Luka, Bosnia, 6 July 1996.

65. Perica Vucinić, “Conflicting Forces,” Vreme News Digest, No. 254, 1996.

66. Carl Bildt, Peace Journey: The Struggle for Peace in Bosnia (London: Weidenfeld, 1998), p. 189.

67. Ibid., p. 198.

68. Zoran Tomić and Nevenko Herceg, Izbori u Bosni I Hercegovini (Mostar, Bosnia: Sveučilište u Mostaru, Centar za studije novinarstva, 1998). The seats won by non-Serb parties were largely due to refugees and displaced people voting in their 1991 residence.

69. Tanja Topić, “Twillight Zone in Republika Srpska,” Vreme News Digest, No. 307, 1997.

70. Miladin Kostović, “Children of the Same Father,” AIM Press, Banja Luka, Bosnia, 14 November 1997.

71. Ibid., p. 363

72. Tanja Topić, “The Generals' Flour,” Vreme News Digest, No. 301, 1997.

73. Branko Perić, “Rise of the Radicals, Decline of the Socialists,” AIM Press, Banja Luka, Bosnia, 16 September 1997.

74. OSCE/ODIHR, “Republika Srpska National Assembly Elections, Warsaw, 22–23 November 1997.”

75. Author's interview with Igor Radojićić, Banja Luka, Bosnia, 1 December 2003.

76. David Chandler, Faking Democracy after Dayton (London: Pluto, 2000), p. 127.

77. Author's interview with Miodrag Živanović, Banja Luka, Bosnia, 22 October 2003.

78. Similar factors seem to have been behind the dominance of nationalist parties in other republics of the former Yugoslavia. For the use of moderate rhetoric at the time of elections see V. P. Gagnon, Jr, The Myth of Ethnic War: Serbia and Croatia in the 1990s (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2004) and Eric Gordy, The Culture of Power in Serbia: Nationalism and the Destruction of Alternatives (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1999).

79. Gordana Katana, “Bosnian Serbs Punish SDS at the Polls,” Balkan Crisis Report, No. 520, 2004, <http://www.iwpr.net>.