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* I would like to thank the Scientific and Technical Reserach Council of Turkey (TÜBI˙TAK), whose financial help enabled me to conduct this research.
Notes
* I would like to thank the Scientific and Technical Reserach Council of Turkey (TÜBI˙TAK), whose financial help enabled me to conduct this research.
1. For a list of features of a diaspora, see Cohen (Citation1997, p. 26).
2. On the issue William Safran, Milton Esman, and Gabriel Sheffer give in-depth analysis.
3. Before using them as a case, it should be noted that unlike the Korean diaspora, the Crimean Tatar does not have an independent homeland, which makes the difference between them in forming diaspora nationalism and their activity. Additionally, the Crimean Tatars are ethnically not totally alien to their host states vis-à-vis the Korean diaspora in Kazakhstan.
4. According to Harry Eckstein, the heuristic case study is used as a means of stimulating the imagination in order to discern important new general problems, identify possible theoretical solutions, and formulate potentially generalizable relations that were not previously apparent. For more information about heuristic case study, see Harry Eckstein, “Case Study and Theory in Political Science,” in Fred Greenstein and Nelson Polsby, eds, Handbook of Political Science (Reading, Mass: Addison–Wesley, 1975), pp. 99–103.
5. There are also smaller Crimean Tatar diaspora enclaves in Romania (40,000) and Bulgaria (20,000), Uzbekistan (500,000), Germany (not yet estimated), and the United States (80,000).
6. The number of activists in this groups are estimated to be a couple of thousand at most and do not number in the millions.
7. The entire remaining Crimean Tatars were deported by the Soviet authorities to Central Asia, mostly to Uzbekistan in the name of treason against the Soviet Union, which is quite similar to the ethnic Korean experience in Kazakhstan.
8. It is important to note that in the non-Western societies “nationalism” is something that is imported from the West. Thus, we cannot expect Crimean Tatar diaspora to develop nationalism before it was imported in the society.
9. Private interview with Dr. Hakan Kırımlı in Ankara, 11 September 2003.
10. Recently the author has been working on a large project concerning the Crimean Tatar villages in Turkey with Dr. Kırımlı.
11. German Kim notes that Koreans were used as pawns in the Soviet's geopolitics in the Far East and Asia-Pacific in general.
12. By the 1970s, the number of university graduates was about twice that of the general population. See Gelb (Citation1995, p. 409); Helsinki Watch Report (Citation1991, p. 28); Kan (Citation1995); and Kim, G. N. i D. V. Men, Istoriia i kul'tura koreitsev Kazakhstana (Almaty: Ghylym, 1995).
13. For the intermarriage issue see Kim, “Almaty-si Koryo-in-dul-ŭ Minjok-gan-ŭ Gyol-hon Munjae” joint project paper, Hankuk University of Foreign Studies, 2001.
14. Associations increased from three to over thirty, and three foundations and one institute were established. Two major journals and many bulletins were being published by these organizations.
15. The branch of the Crimean Tatar diaspora in Turkey is accepted as the most important branch of diaspora by diaspora nationalists; for more information, see Kırım, Vol. 23 (1998), p. 1.
16. These circumstances can be attributed to natural assimilation processes over several generations and the longstanding policy of Turkey to promote a Turkish identity and sense of national unity among an ethnically heterogeneous population. Quite similar to what ethnic Koreans are experiencing in Kazakhstan since 1990.
17. The subdued pulse of these groups has increased due to Turkish domestic and international developments. The progressive liberalization apparent in Turkish political life and growing willingness to accept, even applaud, the multi-ethnic character of nation is crucial in this progress (Bezanis, Citation1994, p. 84).
18. The Tatar Charitable Society opened branches in those locations in Anatolia which had considerable Crimean Tatar diaspora, such as Bandırma, Eskişehir, and some other towns.
19. Members of this group later played a critical role in the diaspora movement in Turkey, e.g. Cafer Seydahmet (the exile Crimean Tatar minister), Müstecip Ülküsal, Edige Kırımal.
20. For example, children were long encouraged to believe that speaking a foreign language in public was unpatriotic. The military service also helped build a Turkish national consciousness in successive young generations.
21. For more information on the matter, see Zbigniew (Citation1997, pp. 130–148).
22. Moreover, it is important to notice that Stalin was in power, thus making it hard for Crimean Tatars to have contact with their homeland.
23. However, the branches of diaspora in other countries continued their “Tatar” identification.
24. Private interview with Dr. Hakan Kırımlı in Ankara, 11 September 2003.
25. For more information also, see Aktaş (Citation1987).
26. Since Kazakhstan is a Turkic country which shares many similarities with Turkey, this may suggest an idea to the Korean diaspora in Kazakhstan.
27. Emel was one of the two diaspora journals which was not closed during the 1980 military coup.
28. Hakan Kırımlı is a Crimean Tatar born in Turkey. He received his Ph.D. from the University of Wisconsin and published a book, National Movements and National Identity among the Crimean Tatars, 1905–1916 (1996). Currently he teaches in Bilkent University, Ankara. He is at the same time one of the main diaspora activists related with Emel and the Main Center for Cultural and Aid Associations of the Crimean Turks (Kırım Türkleri Kültür ve Yardımlaşma Dernegi Genel Merkezi), along with his father, A. I˙hsan Kırımlı. He was a representative of the Crimean Tatar National Movement Organization in the Crimea to Turkey for a period.
29. Zafer Karatay is a Crimean Tatar born in Ankara, in 1958. He graduated from Gazi University's Engineering and Architecture Department. Since 1986 he has been working as a producer in TRT (Turkish National Television) producing various documentary programs. He was an activist in Emel as an editor. He published many articles about the Crimean Tatars in various newspapers and journals in Turkey. He was a representative of the Crimean Tatar National Movement Organization in the Crimea.
30. Private interview with Hakan Kırımlı in Ankara, 11 September 2003.
31. Private interview with Hakan Kırımlı in Ankara, 11 September 2003.
32. For more detail information, see An et al. (Citation1997, pp. 156–157).
33. Kim notes Koreans in America who made great progress in business, in science, and later even in politics. He mentions the historical experience of the Korean diaspora who generally showed a special ability to adapt to new ecological, economic and socio-cultural conditions. Private interview with German Kim in Almaty, 4 August 2003. On the issue see Kim (Citation1999).
34. Recently, there has been much research on constructing a network of ethnic Koreans in CIS countries, including Central Asian countries, with South Korea by Korean scholars. This kind of research will give many ideas to the Korean diaspora and Korean government for more systematical backing. For more information, see Lim Young Sang (Citation2001).
35. Private interview with Hakan Kırımlı in Ankara, 11 September 2003.
36. It was first issued in 1938 in the name of Lenin Kichi (Lenin's Banner) and was renamed as Koryo Ilbo in 1991.
37. Even though the audience is limited, such facilities will play an important role to organize the diaspora movement when the time has come, just as the Crimean Tatar journal has played in Turkey. Although the Crimean Tatar journal has existed nominally sometimes, it played a critical role after the mid 1980s.