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Notes
1. Tritt et al., Struggling for Ethnic Identity, 19, 20, 24, 26–27, 139–44; Ulč, “Gypsies in Czechoslovakia,” 314–15.
2. Pehe, “Law on Romanies Causes Uproar in Czech Republic,” 18–22; Kamm, “In Slovak Gypsy Ghetto, Hovels and Plea for Jobs,” A4; Nemcokov, “Don't Blame Slovakia for Gypsy Problem,” A14.
3. Crowe, A History of the Gypsies of Eastern Europe and Russia, 221.
4. Crowe, “Roma in Eastern Europe,” 214, 221; Farnam, “White Residents Nostalgic about Usti Wall,” 1.
5. Roma Rights, no. 2 (2004), 49.
6. “Challenging Coercive Sterilisations of Romani Women in the Czech Republic,” 2.
7. “UN Committee against Torture Urges the Czech Republic to Investigate Alleged Coercive Sterilisation of Romani Women,” 1–2; “Response of the Czech Government Commissioner for Human rights to ERRC Action on Coercive Sterilisations of Romani Women in the Czech Republic,” 1–3; “Coercive Sterilisations in the Czech Republic,” 1–3; Cahn, “Breakthrough,” 1–6; “Challenging Coercive Sterilisations of Romani Women in the Czech Republic,” 1–8; “Czech Public Defender of Rights,” 1–4.
8. “First Civil Complaint Filed Regarding Coercive Sterilisations of Romani Women,” 1; “First Court Victory in Central Europe on Coercive Sterilisation of Romani Women,” 1–2; Závěrečné stanovisko veřejného ochránce práv ve věci sterilizací prováděných v rozporu právem a návrhy opatření k nápravě, 71–73.
9. European Roma Rights Centre, League of Human Rights, and Gender Studies, Shadow Report to the Committee on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women for the Czech Republic, 18–19.
10. Laubeová, “The Fiction of Ethnic Homogeneity,” 142.
11. European Commission against Racism and Intolerance, Third Report on the Czech Republic, 15.
12. Ibid., 15–27.
13. Malcolm, Kosovo, 209; European Roma Rights Centre, Roma Rights, no. 2 (1999), 1; Rafati, “Invisible Roma in Kosovo,” 1.
14. Malcolm, Kosovo, 206.
15. Ibid., 207–08.
16. Ibid., 208, 264–68, 278–86; Crowe, History of the Gypsies, 222.
17. United National High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), Background Paper on Refugees and Asylum Seekers from Kosovo, 4.
18. Malcolm, Kosovo, 334–37; UNHCR, Background Paper, 5.
19. Judah, The Serbs, 29, emphasis in the original.
20. Crowe, History of the Gypsies, 230–31; Malcolm, Kosovo, 344–46.
21. Gall, “Kosovo War Over, Gypsies Find Themselves Alone,” 6; there is also some evidence that the Serbs made a similar alliance with ethnic Turks in Kosova. Erlanger, “As NATO Pours In, Fearful Serbs Pour Out,” A11.
22. Cahn and Peric, “Roma and the Kosovo Conflict,” 1.
23. Gall, “Kosovo War Over,” 6.
24. Ibid.
25. Ibid.; a number of press accounts support Makolli's claim that the Serbs forced the Roma to work as grave diggers. Finn, “Pollashka's List,” A22; Lynch, “Hidden Children Return to Find Slain Families, Friends,” 7A; Fisher with Rohde, “Return to Many Villages is Visit to ‘Crime Scenes,’” A19; some Albanian Kosovars thought the Roma were paid by the Serbs for their work. Knickmeyer, “Villagers Describe More Massacres,” 15A.
26. Rromani Baxt, “The Situation of the Rroma in Cossivia,” 3–4.
27. Ibid.
28. Cahn and Peric, “Roma and the Kosovo Conflict,” 2–3.
29. Ibid., 3; Gall, “Kosovo Rebels Said to Allow Violence against Serbs,” A5.
30. Fisher, “Germans Plan Curfew as Crime Rises in a City,” A8; Rohde, “Kosovar Attack on Gypsies Reveals Desire for Revenge,” A12; Gall, “Albanians Loot and Burn, Aiming Wrath at Gypsies,” A14; Jones, “Relief Convoy,” 21, 24.
31. “Declaration of the Rromani Union Concerning the Recent Events in Kosovo,” 2.
32. Press Statement, European Roma Rights Centre, Budapest, “Human Rights Project Sofia,” 3–6; Letter of Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe to Secretary of State Madeline Albright, 1–2. As of mid-September 1999, the CSCE had not heard back from Secretary Albright. According to Erika Schlager, the CSCE's Counsel for International Law, it often takes months for a response from the State Department or the White House to make it back to the Commission. Erika Schlager to David Crowe, 13 September 1999.
33. Erlanger, “After Slow Start, U.N. Asserts Role in Running Kosovo,” A1, A10; by the end of August 1999, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees estimated that there were 173,000 Kosovar Roma and Serbs in Serbia, though only 133,737 were officially registered as such. Erlanger, “Serbs Driven from Kosovo Live Crowded and in Want,”A3; Dr. Bernard Kouchner, the UN's administrator for Kosova, told the UN Security Council on 11 September 1999 that Kosova had a population of 1.4 million Albanians, 97,000 Serbs, and 73,000 individuals from other ethnic groups, including Roma. RFE/RL Newsline 3, no. 178, Part II (13 September 1999).
34. Roma Rights, no. 1 (2002), 104.
35. Roma Rights, no. 2 (2002), 52.
36. Roma Rights, no. 1 (2004), 83–88.
37. Roma Rights, no. 2 (2004), 57.
38. Ward, “Poisoned Children,” A12.
39. Ibid.
40. Shaw, History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, 20–22; MacDermott, A History of Bulgaria, 1393–1885, 20–21; Shashi, Roma, 21; Hancock, “The Romani Diaspora,” 615.
41. Kenrick, “Notes on the Gypsies of Bulgaria,” 77; Kozlov, “Changes in the Ethnic Composition of Rumania and Bulgaria,” 35–37; Kirk, Europe's Population in the Interwar Years, 228; Georgeoff and Crowe, “National Minorities in Bulgaria, 1919–1980,” 281.
42. Crowe, History of the Gypsies, 17–19.
43. Kenrick, “The Gypsies of Bulgaria before and after the 10th of November,” 3; “The Gypsies,” 24; Gilliat-Smith, “The Gypsies of Bulgaria, 1948,” 157; Ackerley, “Romano-Esi,” 157–58.
44. Bell, The Bulgarian Communist Party from Blagoev to Zhikov, 98–99; the 154,393 Turks forced out of the country made up 12% of the total Turkish population in Bulgaria. Georgeoff and Crowe, “National Minorities in Bulgaria,” 284; Grotthusen, Südosteuropa-Handbuch Bulgarien, 558; Şimşir, “Turkish Minority in Bulgaria,” 167.
45. “Minorities in Eastern Europe,” 14; “Minorities in Eastern Europe—II,” 6; Helsinki Watch, Destroying Ethnic Identity, 8.
46. Ibid., 61–62.
47. Ibid., 63–66.
48. Ibid., 13, 20–21; Eminov, “There are No Turks in Bulgaria,” 206; Şimşir, “Turkish Minority in Bulgaria,” 168.
49. Tomova, The Gypsies in the Transition Period, 22–23, 25; Marushiakova and Popov, Tsiganite v Bulgariuya, 161–65.
50. Helsinki Watch, Destroying Ethnic Identity, 71.
51. Ibid., 71–72.
52. Tomova, The Gypsies, 57–58; Puxon, Rom (1987), 17; Pekelsky, “Die Zigeunerfrage in den ost- und südosteuropa staaten,” 616; Helsinki Watch, Destroying Ethnic Identity, 30–32.
53. Helsinki Watch, Destroying Ethnic Identity, 29–34.
54. Puxon, Rom (1987), 11.
55. Troxel, “Bulgaria's Gypsies,” 59; “True, Tormented Pan-Europeans,” The Economist, 66; Ilchev and Perry, “Bulgarian Ethnic Groups,” 39; Project on Ethnic Relations, The Romanies in Central and Eastern Europe, 8; Poulton, The Balkans, 116; Helsinki Watch, “Bulgaria,” 1, 7–8.
56. Crowe, History of the Gypsies, 247; idem, “Roma: The Gypsies,” 456; Central Intelligence Agency, “World Population Estimates, July 2005”; European Union, “Commission: Bulgaria's and Romania's Accession Possible in 2007, if Preparation Efforts are Intensified,” 16 May 2006, IP/06/634, 1–2; European Union, “Key Findings of the May 2006 Monitoring Reports on Bulgaria and Romania,” 16 May 2006, MEMO/06/201, 1–2.
57. Troxel, “Bulgaria's Gypsies,” 60; Helsinki Watch, Gypsies of Bulgaria, 43–44; Perry, “Bulgaria,” 80; Manush Romanov discusses the Democratic Union of Gypsies-ROMA as well as its goals and policies in his “Chants rom de Bulgarie,” 36–37; Romanov also headed the Cultural, Educational Organization for Roma in Bulgaria at the same time he took over ROMA. Poulton, The Balkans, 116–17.
58. Troxel, “Bulgaria's Gypsies,” 60; Feffer, Shock Waves, 238.
59. Troxel, “Bulgaria's Gypsies,” 60–61; Ilchev and Perry, “Bulgarian Ethnic Groups,” 39, n. 10.
60. Engelbrekt, “Bulgarian Gypsies Demand Ban on ‘Fascist’ Organizations,” n.p.
61. Project on Ethnic Relations, The Roma in Bulgaria, 1.
62. Bugajski, Ethnic Politics in Eastern Europe, 250–51.
63. Ibid.; United States Department of State, Bulgaria Country Report on Human Rights Practices for 1998, 8.
64. Case of Nachova and Others v. Bulgaria, 1–42; “European Court of Human Rights Confirms Racial Discrimination in Landmark Bulgarian Case,” 1–2.
65. Project on Ethnic Relations, The Roma in Bulgaria, 8; European Roma Rights Centre, “Roma—Police Seminars in Bulgaria,” 1–3.
66. Ilieva, “The Bulgarian Draft Anti-Discrimination Law,” 1–6.
67. European Roma Rights Centre, “Five Roma Rights Victories under New Bulgarian Equality Law,” 2.
68. Central Intelligence Agency, “Bulgaria,” 5; Tomova, The Gypsies in the Transition Period, 60; Tanaka, “Parallel Worlds,” 1.
69. Tomova, The Gypsies in the Transition Period, 58.
70. Kyuchukov, “Projects in Romani Education,” 1–2.
71. Kolev, “Roma Folklore Classes in Bulgarian Schools,” 1–3, 5.
72. “Bulgarian Ministry of Education and Science Issues Landmark ‘Instruction for the Integration of Minority Children and Pupils,’” 1.
73. Panayotova, “Successful Romani School Desegregation,” 1–5.
74. European Roma Rights Centre, “Desegregation Court Victory,” 1–2.
75. Council of Europe, European Social Charter (revised), 3.V.1996, 12; “Bulgarian Authorities Urged to Halt Forced Evictions of Roma,” 1.
76. Iliev, “Participation of Bulgarian Roma in the 2001 General Elections and Prospects for Political Representation,” 1–3; Russinov, “Romani Politics as a Profession,” 1–2.
77. “Increased Romani Participation Fuels Anti-Romani Racism in Bulgarian Local Elections,” 1.
78. Crowe, History of the Gypsies, 139; the best study to date on Roma slavery in Romania is Achim's The Roma in Romanian History. The English edition is a little more thorough than his original Romanian edition, Ţigani în istoria României.
79. Ionescu, “The Gypsies Organize,” 41.
80. Ibid., 40; Helsinki Watch, Since the Revolution, 21–23; idem, Destroying Ethnic Identity, 37–73, 88, 117–19 and passim; Staar and Grigory, 1991 Yearbook on International Communist Affairs, 336–39; Beck, “Violence against Students in Bucharest has Broad Implications for the Future,” B4.
81. Ionescu, “The Exodus,” 25, 28.
82. Ionescu, “Recent Immigration Figures,” 22; Marshall, “German Migration Policies,” 247; Brown, Surge to Freedom, 147; Fisher, “Germany's Gypsy Question,” F1, F5, F7; Protzman, “Germany Fears the Spread of Anti-Foreign Violence,” A6; idem, “In Rostock, Asylum-Seekers Lived in a Powder Keg,” A6; Fisher, “Bonn, Bucharest Cement Accord to Repatriate Romanian Gypsies,” A27, A30; Kelley, “Gypsy Stereotypes Fuel Germany's Hatred,” 8A; “Romanian Gypsies are Skeptical about Germany's Help,” A3; Kinzer, “Germany Cracks Down,” E5; “Gypsies in Germany Face Crisis,” 18; Protzman, “Germany Attacks Rise as Foreigners Become Scapegoat,” A1, A4; Kinzer, “Germans in Accord on Law to Limit Seekers of Asylum,” A1, A6.
83. Kelley, “Gypsy Stereotypes Fuel Germany's Hatred,” 8A.
84. “Gypsies in Germany Face Crisis,” 18.
85. “Romanian Gypsies are Skeptical,” 3.
86. Case of Moldovan and Others v. Romania, 1–8.
87. Council of Europe, Third Report on Romania, 17; Open Society Institute, Monitoring Local Implementation of the Government Strategy for the Improvement of the Condition of Roma, 10.
88. Ibid., 20.
89. Surdu and Surdu, Broadening the Agenda, 5, 9.
90. Ibid., 5.
91. Ibid., 31–41.
92. Ibid., 43–52.
93. Ibid., 53–58.
94. Ibid., 59–64.
95. Ibid., 65–67; “Plan to Segregate Roma in Romania,” 1; “Attempted Ghettoisation of Roma in Romanian Town,” 1.
96. “Roma Expelled from Romanian Capital,” 1; “Evictions of Roma in Romania,” 1–2; “Roma Forcibly Evicted by Romanian Officials,” 1; “Romanian Mayor Announces Intention to Evict Romani Families,” 1; “Roma Houses Destroyed in Romanian Town of Seica Mare,” 1.
97. Surdu and Surdu, Broadening the Agenda, 69–71; Mihalache, “Obstacles to the Participation of Roma in Elections in Romania,” 1–2.