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Notes
1. See Cohen, Symbolic Construction of Community; Billig, Banal Nationalism; Bhabha, Location of Culture, 2–3.
2. Goreta, “Severina u Novom Sadu pjevala s Balaševićem.” On Croatian performers' activity in other former Yugoslav successor states, see Baker, “Politics of Performance.”
3. Dežulović, “Seve i Edo”; “U pamet si, braćo Srbi!,” Kurir, 10 January 2006.
4. Rasmussen, Newly-Composed Folk Music of Yugoslavia, 99. Zabavna: literally “light-entertainment” music. Yugoslav-era showbusiness comprised zabavna (pop) and narodna (folk) music, and this categorization flourishes in Serbia and Bosnia. Croatia's narodna sector involves only tamburica soloists/groups, Dalmatian klapas, and “authentic” folk-music traditions; Croatian music marketing's major distinction is between zabavna and “pop-rock.”
5. “New folk songs”: see Čolović, Divlja književnost. “Turbofolk,” was coined satirically by the alternative musician Rambo Amadeus. The term was widely taken up—sometimes pejoratively, sometimes just denoting 1990s NCFM. See Gordy, Culture of Power in Serbia; Kronja, Smrtonosni sjaj; Tarlać and Đurić, Antologija turbo folka; Đurković, Diktatura, nacija, globalizacija; Grujić, “Inclusiveness.”
6. Pettan, “Croats.”
7. See, for example, Ceribašić, “Defining Women and Men”; Gall, “Ljuta trava zaborava”; Dragaš, “‘Balkanizacija.’” This myth reifies the narodna and zabavna genres, and minimizes 1980s developments which indicated that they were already converging before Croatian independence. See Baker, “Politics of Performance.”
8. Gall, “Prianja baš uz svaku podlogu”—“translating” Brena's name from Serbian ekavica to Croatian ijekavica.
9. Prica, Omladinska potkultura u Beogradu, 87.
10. Pettan, “Croats.”
11. Rasmussen, Newly-Composed Folk Music, xix.
12. Razsa and Lindstrom, “Balkan is Beautiful,” 630.
13. Cf. his 1997 election slogan “Tuđman, a ne Balkan [Tuđman, not the Balkans]”. See Rihtman-Auguštin, Ulice moga grada, 213; Razsa and Lindstrom, “Balkan is Beautiful,” 644.
14. Bakić-Hayden and Hayden, “Orientalist Variations on the Theme ‘Balkans.’”
15. Dragaš, “‘Balkanizacija.’”
16. Gall, “Ikona masovne nekulture”; “Glumica protiv Severine: Uzima nam kruh,” Index, 20 November 2005, <http://www.index.hr/clanak.aspx?id=292862> (accessed 5 July 2008). Severina's 1998 World Cup connection was retrospectively interpreted this way in 2006 after an unrelated scandal involving footballers visiting a narodnjački club: Butković, “Bilić.”
17. HDZ also adopted a Đani Maršan song as its 1990s anthem, featured “Band Aid”-style groups in 1995 broadcasts, and featured Toni Cetinski (in military uniform) in 1997: Senjković, Lica društva, 88, 153.
18. For example, the bands Majke and Parni valjak, and the singer-songwriter Gibonni: Senjković, Lica društva, 108–09.
19. Prica, “Na tlu trivijalnog,” 148–49.
20. Pavelić, “Severina jedra kao Sanaderovo samopouzdanje”; Lovrić, “Mala-je-dala politika.”
21. Rasmussen, “Southern Wind of Change,” 109.
22. On Turkey 2003, see Solomon, “Articulating the Historical Moment.”
23. On Eurovision as spectacle, see Bolin, “Visions of Europe.”
24. On occasional earlier uses of the strategy in Scandinavia, see Jones-Bamman, “From ‘I'm a Lapp’ to ‘I am Saami’”; Pajala, “Northern Exoticism.”
25. Billig, Banal Nationalism, 8, 86.
26. Bolin, “Visions of Europe,” 190–91.
27. Tzanelli, “‘Impossible is a Fact,’” 497.
28. Bellamy, Formation of Croatian National Identity, 114.
29. Lacko and Hančić, “Hrvatskoj predviđaju gornji dom.”
30. Batinović, “Hrvatska na Euroviziji.” TV Zagreb, as part of Yugoslav Television (JRT) had also won the Yugoslav pre-selection many times. Its songs' 1980s Eurovision success included victory in 1989, making Yugoslavia the host in 1990 (when the Yugoslav media's political polarization led to conflicts between JRT and TV Zagreb). See Vuletić, “The Socialist Star.”
31. Vukelić, “Jumbo jetom.”
32. Ruslana's folkloric musical elements include “powerful and permeating ethnic drums,” repeated cries of “Hey,” foot-stamping, whip-cracking, and the trembitas, a horn-like “ancient mystical Hutsul music instrument” supposedly produced by “craftsmen” from a lightning-felled tree: “Bio,” <http://www.ruslana.com.ua> (accessed 10 November 2005).
33. Mikić, “The Way We (Just Me, Myself and I) Were.” Mikić considers that the introductory melody was harmonically adapted for European listeners, and that the gentle presentation of “Lane” aimed to convey an alternative Serbian masculinity to the 1990s prevailing internationally constructed image. Cf. the “new democratic masculinity” surrounding assassinated Serbian Prime Minister Zoran Đinđić: Greenberg, “‘Goodbye Serbian Kennedy.’”
34. Čolović, “Balkan.”
35. Mikac, “Joksimović.”
36. Brajčić, “Na Dori.” Novković's rivals in the Croatian pre-selection included two competing essentializations of an aspect of Croatian heritage: Luka Nižetić from Split, accompanied by a klapa vocal group (Dalmatian/Mediterranean), and Tonči Huljić's Magazin, understood (as usual) as standing for an “eastern melos” and religious kitsch (with a song about Nazareth). Huljić had previously used religious kitsch for Doris Dragović's “Marija Magdalena,” fourth-placed at Eurovision 1999, which one critic likened to that year's Turkish folk-pop entry: Horvat, “Regionalni pristup.” On Dalmatian showbusiness's essentialized Mediterranean, see Ćaleta, “Ethnomusicological Approach.”
37. Ducats are a frequent symbol in Slavonian tamburica music: cf. the most successful commercial tamburica group, Zlatni dukati (Golden ducats). See Bonifačić, “Regional and National Aspects.”
38. Žanić, Flag on the Mountain, 356–58 (wolves); Pavičić, “Spoj kiča i katolicizma.” HOS (Croatian Defence Force): a 1991–1993 paramilitary organization under the far-right Croatian Party of Right (HSP). An elite National Guard brigade from 1991, later incorporated into the regular Croatian army, was also called “Vukovi.”
39. Mikić, “The Way We (Just Me, Myself and I) Were.”
40. Ćelan, “Proradit će adrenalin i u finalu!”; Boić Petrač, “Eurosong je moja priča.” The Moldovan representatives for 2005—ethno-rock group Zdob si Zdub—appeared just as aware that essentialized heritage offset by knowing inauthenticity offered an eye-catching promotional method.
41. “Novković Severini na Doru uvalio plagijat,” 24 sata, 29 January 2006; Mikac, “Bregović.”
42. A short-lived report (originating from a spoof on HTV's online forum) had claimed—satirizing the Bregović reports and Severina's symbolic associations—that Severina's entry would be called “Balkan” (a song by Serbian showbusiness-folk singer Seka Aleksić): Basara, “Kostadinov.”
43. In 2004, Darko Duvnjak-Darus (with dual Croatian citizenship) participated as composer of Karma's song “Malo pomalo” (“Thompson Light,” Svet, 19 March 2004), but is a minor showbusiness figure compared to Bregović.
44. Ditchev, “Eros,” 246–47; Iordanova, Cinema of Flames, 130. Cf. Bregović's use of Gypsy music on pieces such as “Kalašnjikov” or “Ederlezi.”
45. Stokes, “Music,” 48–49.
46. Pavelić, “Majstori.”
47. Gourgouris, “Hypnosis,” 336–37. Today, certain Croatian critics even draw a direct line from Dugme's rock with folkloric motifs (e.g. Macedonian 7/8 rhythm) into rock, towards music by the Croatian nationalist singer Marko Perković Thompson: Gall, “Neću u Čavoglave”; Pavelić, “Majstori.” Despite rock stylings, Thompson is often understood in Croatia as performing “folk”: see Senjković and Dukić, “Virtual Homeland?” See also Rasmussen, Newly-Composed Folk Music, 108, on Bregović and Lepa Brena contributing to NCFM/showbusiness fusion.
48. The reunion was referenced in another example of retromanija—Tijana Dapčević's song “Sve je isto samo Njega nema” [It's All the Same, Only He's Not Here]—intricately satirizing the former Yugoslav peoples' relationships to Tito and the socialist past: Mikić, “The Way We (Just Me, Myself and I) Were.”
49. “[N]ot because we declared ourselves Yugoslavs, but because our music had elements from everywhere, it was inspired by those territories. You can find traces from Dalmatia to Vojvodina, also Zagorje, Međimurje, Macedonia … And so it was close to everyone. It wasn't declarative, but the music remained, and nothing else even could remain from that Yugoslavia”: Ilić and Mikac, “G Bregović.”
50. Bregović is well known for “restaging” motifs from previous work, and has adapted, for example, Dugme's songs “Đurđevdan” and “Ružica si bila” (themselves folk-song adaptations) for world-music compositions and film soundtracks: Gourgouris, “Hypnosis,” 342.
51. “Štikla ko opanak,” Kurir, 22 February 2006. Srpski connotes ethnic Serbness; the narrower srbijanski connotes the geographical entity of Serbia.
52. Babić, “Seve.” The distinction concerns the Slavic vowel “ě,” which becomes “ije”/“je” in Croatian and “e” in Serbian—hence “ijekavica”/“ekavica” for the respective variants: Dragojević, “Competing Institutions,” 69.
53. On the early 1990s politicization of the differences between Croatian and Serbian, and their use to differentiate and exclude Croatian Serbs from full membership of the nation, see Bellamy, Formation of Croatian National Identity, 137–46.
54. For example, the Belgrade band Zana's “Dodirni mi kolena” [Touch my Knees] became “Dodirni mi koljena” when covered by Severina in 1999. Serbian popular music is nearly always in ekavica, though Neda Ukraden's post-2000 albums have used ijekavica, perhaps because she recorded them with Croatians (including Franjo Valentić, co-composer of “Vukovi”)—provoking some adverse comment in Serbia: “Rat između Srba i Hrvata biće konačno završen kada Neda Ukraden i Tompson snime duet,” Svet, 14 March 2003. Ekavica may also be used for rare collaborations between Croatian and Serbian performers that are intended for Serbian/Bosnian markets and not released in Croatia, e.g. a 2002 duet between Slađana and Croatian dance group Karma (“Zauvek” not “Zauvijek”).
55. Boban and Marković, “Seve.”
56. Matić, “Seve s rerom.”
57. Two Croatians (Andrej Babić and Vesna Pisarović) composed for Bosnia-Herzegovina (2004, 2005); Babić twice entered the Slovenian pre-selection (2005, 2006); Tonči Huljić rearranged Serbia-Montenegro's entry (2005); Željko Joksimović composed for Bosnia-Herzegovina (2006).
58. Matić, “Seve s rerom.” Linđo: a dance from Dubrovnik; ganga and rera: characteristic singing styles from Lika/Herzegovina; šijavica: a Dalmatian counting rhyme. Intentionally or not, this interview's headline made a couplet in standard folkloric-epic decasyllabic metre (“Seve s rerom spremna za Atenu, Andrea neće zamijeniti Jelenu”), also referencing the month's second most prominent showbusiness story on whether Magazin would introduce a new vocalist (Andrea Šušnjara instead of Jelena Rozga).
59. Goreta, “Severina: Spojila sam Split.”
60. Radović, “Crnci.”
61. Perić et al., “Moja štikla.”
62. Stjepan Večković, “Glazba,” <http://scena.hgu.hr/stjepan-veckovic/glazba.html> (accessed 25 September 2006). Večković here calls his music “Croatian ethno music. Its source [izvorište] is Croatian folkloric tradition which, across the centuries, has retained a unique, recognizable identity. A Croatian identity.” One of his showbusiness clients, Neda Ukraden, is attached to the Serbian market by the Croatian media.
63. The chant “zumba-zumba-zumba-zumba, sijeno-slama-sir-salama” is performed by Severina's male backing vocalists. As one of the song's most nonsensical lines, it had been widely reproduced, sometimes (in Serbia) transposed into ekavica—making it “the unambiguous line (seno, slama)” which “proved” to one interviewer that it was in ekavica (Matić, “Seve s rerom”). A “seno-slama-slama-seno” refrain had appeared on a newly composed folk song (“Šu-šu,” dedicated to Šumadija) by the 1960s Serbian singer Olivera Katarina—whose public image, with the nickname “Oli nacionale,” in some ways prefigured Severina's: see Luković, Bolja prošlost, 190.
64. Perić et al., “Moja štikla.” Bajuk and Knebl draw mainly on music from Međimurje/Podravina (northern Croatia). Novaković, founder of the groups Legen and Kries, fused Dalmatian unaccompanied singing with electronic ambient sampling.
65. Marušić, “‘Štikla.’”
66. Rožman, “Aleksandar Kostadinov.” Kostadinov also argued that Novaković had used similar melodies with Legen—including the “zumba” motif.
67. Rožman, “Aleksandar Kostadinov.” Karleuša was a more recent Serbian pop-folk singer.
68. Oremović, “Izgaranje naroda.”
69. See Billig, Banal Nationalism, 86.
70. Butković, “Severina”; Perić et al., “Moja štikla”; Oremović, “Izgaranje naroda”; Mikac, “Severina podijelila.” See also Čolović, Divlja književnost, 153, 158, on “joke erotic songs” and satirical references to urban symbols (including one song “Cipelice na štiklice” [High-Heeled Shoes]) as existing tropes in NCFM.
71. Ivkošić, “‘Štikla.’”
72. Another compares Thompson to the Serbian showbusiness-folk singer Ceca Ražnatović.
73. For example, Fazlić et al., “Krvave noći.” Gangster violence has always been an implicit element in the turbofolk aesthetic: Kronja, Smrtonosni sjaj, 39–40.
74. Brajčić, “Slavuj iz Mrčajevaca”; Dervoz, “Srpski folk u Lijepoj naši”; Lazarin, “43% tinedžjera sluša narodnjake.”
75. Marušić, “Dora.”
76. Mikac, “Severina podijelila.”
77. Ljubičić, “Milo mame svoje?!”
78. “If the majority of Croatian inhabitants are really ashamed of this country, where a large percentage of its inhabitants grew up with Sinj rera, Herzegovinian ganga and Čavoglave šijavica, Drniš ojkavica and even ethno-elements of Slavonian dancing songs [poskočice] […] then many more Vlatka Pokoses would have to leave Croatia”: Mikac, “Severina podijelila.” Singer/presenter Pokos had frequently criticized “Štikla” as turbofolk: Mustapić, “Vlatka Pokos.”
79. Ilić, “Štiklom u sridu”; Perić and Đaković, “Severina u šiljkanima.”
80. The Belgrade audience objected to Montenegrin jurors' not voting for the highest-placed Serbian song. There had been similar allegations against Montenegro in Evropesma 2005, won by a Montenegrin song, and the same Montenegrin group scored highest in 2006. Both Montenegrin songs had had potentially patriotic lyrics, and it was feared their performance might even influence voters in the Montenegrin independence referendum, held the day after Eurovision). RTS proposed a re-run, but RTCG considered the result final; Serbia-Montenegro eventually withdrew from Eurovision with a compromise allowing it to vote. See Mikić, “The Way We (Just Me, Myself and I) Were.”
81. “Ana Ben Hur i Majini gej sismisi,” Svet, 16 March 2006. Severina's last performance there—a TV Pink awards-show—had been the date of Zoran Đinđić's assassination: Mikac, “Severini ovacije.”
82. Dinić and Mihailović, “Samo Severina.”
83. Varešanović's zabavna music, always (like Magazin) “on the borders of folk” (Đurković, Diktatura, 212–13), vocally derives from Bosnian sevdah. He is widely popular throughout former Yugoslavia, including full activity in Croatia.
84. See Kronja, “Politics as Porn,” 206.
85. Judah, “A Warlike Song”; Pavičić, “Povijesna Štikla.”
86. Twelve (maximum) from Bosnia-Herzegovina; 10 from Slovenia, Macedonia, and Serbia-Montenegro; 6 from Switzerland; 4 from Monaco; 2 from Turkey and Germany. One showbusiness manager characterized only the Monegasque/Turkish points as “natural,” i.e. not from former Yugoslavia or countries with strong former Yugoslav diasporas: Goreta, “Severina: Napravili smo dobar posao.”
87. Rožman, “Aleksandar Kostadinov.” The backing vocals, performed on stage by Lado members, were recorded by an amateur group and two wedding singers from Čavoglave: Goreta, “Severina: Tekst ‘Štikle.’” Čavoglave is itself well known in Croatian showbusiness as Thompson's birthplace (his first hit single during the Homeland War was dedicated to his platoon-mates' defence of it); surprisingly, this connection was not noted in the “Štikla” commentaries.
88. Baker, “Politics of Performance,” 282; see also Jansen, Antinacionalizam.
89. Pettan, “Croats.”
90. Marušić, “Severina štiklom.”
91. Senjković and Dukić, “Virtual Homeland?,” 54.
92. “Kostadinov: Nismo namjestili pobjedu Severini,” Index, 7 March 2006, <http://www.index.hr/clanak.aspx?id=310085> (accessed 7 March 2006).
93. Grubišić, “Štiklom po tradiciji”; Krce, “Ganga na Olimpu.”
94. Jadrijević Tomas, “Napolju je poledica.” Unlike Severina, Bulić added that his music was “a barrier against the east” (i.e. Serbian folk).
95. See Senjković and Dukić, “Virtual Homeland?,” 50; see also Dawson, Soldier Heroes, 75.
96. Mikac, “Zašto.”
97. Senjković and Dukić, “Virtual Homeland?,” 59.
98. Mikac, “Zašto smo.” Patriotic-showbusiness performers (e.g. Thompson or Niko Bete) have strongly supported the indictees, and several Miroslav Škoro songs use betrayed-hero images to represent both contemporary officers and famous Croatian historical figures.
99. 24 sata (which had most prolonged the ekavica “scandal”) still attempted to manufacture another controversy around Bregović being by association “an Ante Gotovina supporter” (“Goran Bregović je pobornik Ante Gotovine?,” 24 sata, 8 March 2006), but this failed to resonate.
100. Goreta, “Severina odustala.”
101. Ukraden came from a Serb family, was born in Imotski and grew up in Sarajevo. During the 1980s, many songs written for her by Croatian composers (including Boris Novković's father Đorđe) prefigured the late-1990s Croatian semi-folk turn. With the outbreak of war, Ukraden controversially moved to Belgrade. During the 1990s she recorded with Serbian composers, but—while still based in Serbia—since 2000 she has recorded her albums with Croatian composers: Franjo Valentić and Branimir Mihaljević. A major 1980s star, Ukraden is now on the periphery of folk in Serbia, and performs in Croatia only at small nightclub venues like many other Serbian folk performers. She has had no Croatian or Serbian compilations of her 1980s hits, only Slovenian-produced editions. Criticized to this day for emphasizing a particular ethnic background to suit political circumstances, Ukraden was perhaps too ambiguous too early to find a place in the ethnicized showbusiness of the post-Yugoslav successor states.
102. Cottle, “Mediatised Rituals,” 411.
103. Vukšić, “Doživio sam.”
104. Brubaker, Nationalism Reframed, 68–75.
105. See Bhabha, Location of Culture, 94–95; Clifford, Predicament of Culture, 12; Peterson, Creating Country Music.
106. Đurković, Diktatura, 185–90.
107. See Razsa and Lindstrom, “Balkan is Beautiful.”
108. Goreta, “Slučaj poliklinike Salus.” The collaboration was not even elevated to the interview's headline, despite Tucaković's long-standing collaboration with Ceca Ražnatović.
109. McClintock, Imperial Leather, 68.
110. Ang, Living Room Wars, 144–45.
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