Hegemonic, regional, minority and language policy in Subcarpathia: a historical overview and the present-day situation

Abstract

During the twentieth century the region of Subcarpathia belonged to several different states: the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, Czechoslovakia, the independent Carpatho-Ukraine, the Hungarian Kingdom, the Soviet Union and finally to Ukraine. Today it borders four member states of the European Union (Poland, the Slovak Republic, Hungary and Romania), and due to its history several ethnicities and languages, religions and cultures live side by side in this region. However, as a consequence of the different language and minority policies in Subcarpathia, we cannot find a common language that everybody knows regardless of age, gender, education, religion or place of residence. The lack of a lingua franca makes dialogue between ethnicities difficult, sometimes even impossible. In this article we outline the main features of the regional, minority and language policies of the different states that existed at the various historical stages. We believe that the in-depth analysis of the history of this region can help find a model that could be useful not only in the region but also in the wider context of similarly multinational, linguistically diverse, culturally colorful territories in the Carpathian Basin and states in East-Central Europe.

Keywords:

• Subcarpathia region
• language policy
• ethnic minority
• multilingualism

Notes

1. The news in the local media: http://karpatinfo.net/hetilap/nem-lesz-magyar-valasztokorzet-karpataljan and Kinga Gál, Hungarian EP member remarks on the topic: http://galkinga.hu/hir/kisebbsegellenes_az_ukran_valasztokeruleti_dontes

2. The usage of the name of Transcarpathia vs. Subcarpathia (in Ukrainian Закарпаття vs. Підкарпаття, in Hungarian Kárpátontúl vs. Kárpátalja) indicates a geographical and/or political viewpoint at the same time. Viewed from Moscow and Kyiv, the region is situated beyond the Carpathian Mountains, which is why Ukrainians and Russians use the name Transcarpathia (Закарпаття in Ukrainian, and Kárpátontúl in Hungarian). Viewed from Budapest and Prague, and from the point of view of the local population, it is situated at the foot of the Carpathian Mountains, which gives it the name Subcarpathia (Підкарпаття in Ukrainian, and Kárpátalja in Hungarian). The name used for the region is not unified in the international literature either. In the English language the terms Subcarpathia and Transcarpathia exist side by side. In the German language most frequently the terms Karpato-Ukraine and Transkarpatien are used. Papers in French mostly refer to it as Ukraine Subcarpathique. Karpato-Ukraine reflects the political reality for the most part; however, the raison d'etre of Subkarpatien as a historical term is considered indisputable. Without any political engagement we decided to use the term Subcarpathia in this article.

3. For further information, see e.g. Dickinson 2010; Kuzio 2005; Lane 2001; Magocsi 1993, 1996; Nekvapil 2007.

4. See, Advisory Committee on the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities. Opinion on Ukraine.Кримські студії, Інформаційний бюлетень 19–20 (1–2), 2003, p. 164.

5. http://w1.c1.rada.gov.ua/pls/zweb_n/webproc4_2?pf3516=7242&skl=7

6. No. 17626/34. dated on 5 September 1996.

7. According to Article 1, Paragraph 7 of the language law the following languages are minority languages in Ukraine: Russian, Byelorussian, Bulgarian, Armenian, Gagauz, Yiddish, Crimean Tatar, Moldavian, German, Modern Greek, Polish, Roma, Romanian, Slovak, Hungarian, Rusyn, Karaim and Krymchak.

8. According to 2001 census data, the number of Karaims is 1196, among them 24 people confessed to be native speakers of the Karaim language. The number of Krymchaks is 406 and 21 individuals are native speakers (Melnyk and Csernicskó 2010d).

9. Russian did not have state language status in the Soviet Union, however de facto it filled the role of official and state language.