Gendered disinformation: a pernicious threat to equality in the Asia Pacific

Introduction

From shadowy whispers to targeted manipulation, disinformation has become a growing threat in the digital age (Wardle, 2023). While it erodes trust and distorts truth, a more insidious form preys on gender. This weaponized disinformation exploits existing biases, weaving a web of stereotypes and falsehoods that hinder progress toward gender equality across the world (Jankowicz et al., 2021), particularly in the Asia Pacific. Gendered disinformation, or the spread of false or misleading information that targets individuals based on their gender, has become a double-edged sword for women, posing significant risks while also presenting opportunities for empowerment and advocacy (Judson, 2021).

The phenomenon of gendered disinformation is a multifaceted and deeply concerning issue that demands our collective attention and unwavering commitment to combat its corrosive effects. At its core, gendered disinformation encompasses the deliberate dissemination of false or misleading narratives that reinforce harmful gender stereotypes, marginalize women and gender minorities, and obstruct their full and equal participation in all spheres of life (EU DisinfoLab, 2021).

The Asia Pacific region, with its rich cultural diversity and complex sociopolitical landscapes, has not been spared from the insidious tendrils of gendered disinformation. From the bustling metropolises of East Asia to the remote villages of the Pacific Islands, this scourge has manifested in myriad forms, exploiting existing biases and exacerbating gender-based inequalities. In this commentary, we explore the gendered disinformation in Southeast Asia, a region located in the southeastern part of Asia, consisting of eleven countries (Brunei, Cambodia, East Timor, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam).

One of the most pernicious aspects of gendered disinformation is its ability to perpetuate harmful narratives that undermine the agency and credibility of women and gender minorities (Bardall, 2022). Whether it is the spreading of false claims about their capabilities, achievements, or societal roles, these narratives serve to reinforce outdated and oppressive stereotypes, hindering their advancement and stifling their voices in the public discourse.

Moreover, gendered disinformation has proven to be a potent weapon in the hands of those seeking to silence and discredit women and gender minorities who dare to challenge the status quo or advocate for their rights (Judson, 2021). Smear campaigns, character assassinations, and the dissemination of doctored or manipulated content have become all too common, creating an environment of fear and intimidation that stifles free expression and curtails the ability to advocate for change. Our article delves into specific examples to demonstrate how the consequences of gendered disinformation reach far beyond the individual. It reverberates through societies, eroding the foundations of gender equality and undermining efforts to build inclusive and equitable communities (Bardall, 2022).

In the Asia Pacific region, where progress toward gender equality has been uneven and fraught with challenges (Cai & Dahiya, 2020; UNWomen, 2018), the threat posed by gendered disinformation is particularly acute. Deeply entrenched cultural norms, societal prejudices, and persistent gender gaps in various sectors have created fertile ground for the proliferation of gendered disinformation, further exacerbating existing inequalities and hampering efforts to foster sustainable and inclusive development (Almenar et al., 2021).

Addressing the scourge of gendered disinformation requires a multifaceted and collaborative approach that engages all stakeholders—governments, civil society organizations, technology companies, media outlets, and individuals alike. It demands a concerted effort to strengthen digital literacy and critical thinking skills, fostering resilience against the insidious influence of disinformation and empowering individuals to discern fact from fiction, particularly on a gender perspective (EU DisinfoLab, 2021).

By addressing the root causes that enable and perpetuate gendered disinformation, we can not only combat the spread of disinformation but also create an environment where women and gender minorities can thrive, contribute their unique perspectives, and shape the discourse without fear of marginalization or silencing. This commentary aims to ignite these conversations.

Gendered disinformation

In recent years, the discourse surrounding democracy in the context of combating the challenges posed by online gendered disinformation has taken center stage in public discussions. This heightened attention is primarily attributed to the growing awareness of issues related to inclusivity and human rights (Thakur & Hankerson, 2021).

There has been a rise in online communities and individuals who actively oppose feminist ideas and push back against the perceived excesses or overreach of 4th wave feminism. This includes arguments against concepts like intersectionality, trigger warnings, and "political correctness" (Anderson, 2021). The anti-feminist backlash has given rise to various narratives and conspiracy theories that seek to discredit, delegitimize and undermine feminist causes.

Gendered disinformation strategically aims to evoke emotional responses from its audience. The language used is often hyperbolic to elicit inaccurate and misleading perceptions, such as the rhetoric on combating rape culture frequently equates the notion of patriarchy and the depiction of women as sexually alluring objects to justify the narratives (Bradshaw & Henle, 2021). This would misleadingly contribute to the normalization of rape culture and highlight the enduring politics of the male gaze, where women are positioned as the cause of sexual assault.

The algorithmic mechanisms employed by social media platforms have, in some ways, amplified the spread of post-truth content, creating information cocoons (Sunstein, 2006) that reinforce existing cognitive frameworks within audiences (Su, 2022). This can potentially lead to cognitive bias and irrationality, further entrenching the impact of gendered disinformation.

The impact of gendered disinformation is evident in studies conducted across various contexts. A 2016 survey found that 41.8% of women in parliament worldwide reported the dissemination of humiliating and sexually charged images of themselves through social media, and 44.4% received alarming threats of death, rape, beating, or abduction (Jankowicz et al., 2021). These threats induced fear and had detrimental effects on the psychological well-being of female politicians, ultimately discouraging women from actively participating in civic life (Di Meco & Wilfore, 2021).

Overall, gendered disinformation poses a significant threat to the realization of equality and inclusion in participatory democracy, undermining the political participation and representation of women across various spheres (Di Meco & Wilfore, 2021; Jankowicz et al., 2021; Thakur & Hankerson, 2021).

Politics as the battlefield for gendered disinformation

The political arena has emerged as a significant battlefield for the propagation of gendered disinformation, rooted in the growing influence of feminist movements and the increasing visibility of women in positions of power (Bradshaw et al., 2021; Jankowicz et al., 2021; Wong, 2024). Gendered disinformation aims to discredit, delegitimize, and marginalize female political actors, threatening the traditional power structures and gender hierarchies (Wilfore, 2021). The impact extends beyond individual candidates, shaping public perceptions, eroding trust in democratic institutions, and perpetuating harmful gender stereotypes (Bradshaw et al., 2021; Jankowicz et al., 2021).

Social media has amplified the reach and impact of gendered disinformation, but increased political literacy and access to fact-checking resources may mitigate its influence, while women’s mobilization and counter-narratives have the potential to challenge its pernicious effects (Scott, 2021). Paradoxically, the strategies used to undermine women’s political participation have sometimes backfired, leading to increased support and solidarity among female voters and activists, who leverage digital tools to amplify their voices and galvanize political support (Wilfore, 2021).

However, the political arena remains a battleground for gendered disinformation, as those seeking to maintain traditional power structures attempt to undermine feminist and gender equity agendas. The rise of political literacy, fact-checking, and women’s mobilization offer hope for overcoming the challenges posed by gendered disinformation (Bradshaw et al., 2021; Jankowicz et al., 2021; Scott, 2021; Wilfore, 2021; Wong, 2024).

Global cases of gendered disinformation

According to Di Meco and Wilfore (2021), a new wave of authoritarianism seeks to marginalize women and undermine progress in minority rights through the manipulation and control of social media, attacks on the press, and constraints on freedom of expression.

Women globally encounter challenges characterized by the manipulation of their dignity and intellectual capacity. The prevalence of disinformation is more pronounced for female leaders belonging to specific racial, ethnic, religious, or other minority groups (Posetti et al., 2020; Posetti & Shabbir, 2022).

The experiences of women journalists, such as Ghada Ouiess, Rana Ayyub, Carmen Aristegui, and Maria Ressa, demonstrate how gendered disinformation is weaponized to discredit their work, undermine their credibility, and silence their critical reporting (Posetti et al., 2021, 2023a, 2023b). The case of Hillary Clinton during the 2016 U.S. presidential election, where she was targeted by disinformation campaigns orchestrated by Russia, serves as a stark example of how AI-generated disinformation can be used to discredit and undermine women in politics (Maksimov, 2023). The murder of Daphne Caruana Galizia, a prominent Maltese journalist and anti-corruption activist, highlights the dangers that women journalists and activists face when challenging entrenched power structures (Assassination Witness, 2020).

These cases are part of a broader pattern of gendered disinformation that has become increasingly prevalent, affecting women who have stepped into the public sphere, such as Shani Dhanda, a female disabled journalist, columnist, and activist (Di Meco & Wilfore, 2021; Judson, 2021; Strand et al., 2021). The complex web of gendered disinformation, rooted in deep-seated biases and power imbalances, has had a profound impact on women’s participation and representation in the public sphere, eroding trust, silencing critical voices, and perpetuating harmful stereotypes (Montiel, 2014; Reid, 2022; Wischermann & Mueller, 2004).

Southeast Asian gendered disinformation and politics

Based on research conducted by Asia Centre, organized disinformation in Thailand has emerged as a significant factor influencing the quality of elections and posing a threat to electoral integrity. This threat undermines the principles of "free and fair elections" and democratic values (Neelapaichit & Puridej, 2023).

Prominent female journalists and political figures across Southeast Asia have faced gendered disinformation campaigns aimed at undermining their legitimacy and power (Posetti et al., 2021). As mentioned before Maria Ressa, a Filipino journalist and Nobel Peace Prize laureate, has been subjected to online harassment. For example, these gendered disinformation narratives targeted her gender and sexuality. These attacks focus on her work as a journalist, but also go beyond that to demean her based on her gender, ethnicity, and nationality (Strand et al., 2021). In Indonesia, influential journalist Najwa Shihab has encountered irrelevant comments and criticism unrelated to the substance of her reporting, with her independence and refusal to conform to traditional gender roles being perceived as a deviation from societal expectations.

Most attacks exploit her father's status as a religious scholar to question her suitability as a journalist, suggesting that she should adhere to traditional gender roles rather than engage in public and critical discourse. This form of disinformation often aim to silence women's voices and push them out of public and professional spaces by using their gender as a basis for attacks (Boberg, 2021). In a country like Indonesia, where religious identity are highly values, there is added layer of complexity to the attacks toward female public figures, by intertwining gendered disinformation with religious expectations and streotypes.

The gendered nature of these disinformation attacks extends to political figures like Leni Robredo, the Vice President of the Philippines, and Sara Duterte, the daughter of former President Duterte, who have faced misogynistic online abuse. These cases highlight how gendered disinformation is used to delegitimize and undermine the political agency and influence of women in the public sphere no matter which side they are (Billard, 2023).

Exploiting gender stereotypes and shifting blame onto women have also become strategy of male political figures during campaigns. For instance, Mahfud MD, the former Coordinating Minister for Political, Legal, and Security Affairs in Indonesia, who was also a vice-presidential candidate in the 2024 election once made a controversial statement suggesting that one of the reasons men engage in corruption is because of the high expectations and demands placed on them by their wives (Firdaus, 2023; Kompas.com, 2024). This remark unfairly blames women for the actions of men and distracts from the broader systemic issues that lead to corruption. Despite Mahfud's clarification that his statement was cited out of context, this kind of gendered disinformation is particularly potent as it taps into deep-seated societal biases and can be difficult to counter.

Interestingly, a study from The U4 Anti Corruption Research Centre has revealed that increased women’s representation in electoral assemblies is positively associated with a decline in corruption, particularly in democratic countries (Bauhr et al., 2018). This correlation is attributed to women’s tendency to exhibit greater risk aversion and different political agendas. However, this proposition also carries the risk of perpetuating the narrative of “political feminization,” which can lead to greater gender bias and the perception that female politicians must adhere to established norms regarding corrupt practices (Barnes & Beaulieu, 2019).

This paradox highlights the complex and multifaceted nature of gendered disinformation. While it aims to discredit and marginalize women in the public sphere, it can also lead to the acceptance of victim-blaming narratives and the reinforcement of gender stereotypes. Simultaneously, some women such as Megawati Sukarnoputri,—Indonesia’s president between 2001 and 2004, have proactively subverted these misogynistic views by reclaiming and joking about their perceived “strangeness” as powerful women, thereby asserting their authority and legitimacy.

In conclusion, gendered disinformation represents a significant threat to electoral integrity and democratic values in Southeast Asia. Addressing this challenge requires a comprehensive approach that tackles the underlying biases, power structures, and societal norms that perpetuate these harmful practices. By empowering women’s political participation and actively countering gendered disinformation, we can work toward a more inclusive and equitable democratic landscape.

Conclusion

The pervasive issue of gendered disinformation represents a grave threat to the realization of equality, inclusion, and democratic values in the Asia Pacific region, particularly Southeast Asia. As this commentary has illustrated, the political arena has emerged as the primary battleground where this insidious form of disinformation is wielded to undermine the progress of women and gender minorities (Asante, 2024; Strand et al., 2021). This complex and multifaceted issue of gendered disinformation cannot be addressed in isolation. As the research highlighted, increased women’s representation in electoral assemblies is positively associated with a decline in corruption, particularly in democratic countries (Barnes & Beaulieu, 2019).

Rooted in deep-seated biases and power imbalances, gendered disinformation exploits existing societal tensions and gender divides, fueling resentment against feminist movements and their goals (Wischermann & Mueller, 2004). By spreading false, misleading, and derogatory narratives that target the competence, integrity, and personal lives of female politicians, journalists, and activists, the purveyors of gendered disinformation seek to discredit, delegitimize, and ultimately silence those who dare to challenge the status quo.

The impact of this phenomenon extends far beyond individual targets, shaping public perceptions, eroding trust in democratic institutions, and perpetuating harmful gender stereotypes that hinder women’s political advancement. As evidenced by the experiences of prominent figures like Maria Ressa, Najwa Shihab, Leni Robredo, and Sara Duterte, the tendrils of gendered disinformation have reached across national boundaries, transcending geographical and cultural divides (Posetti et al., 2021, 2023a). The proliferation of AI-generated content, coupled with increasingly realistic-appearing deepfakes and the availability of cheaper tools, also poses a growing threat. As disinformation becomes even more widespread and harder to distinguish from authentic content, the risk of gendered attacks against prominent women in politics, like the case of Hillary Clinton, will only continue to escalate (Ajeti, 2023; Maksimov, 2023).

Notably, the rise of social media has significantly amplified the reach and impact of gendered disinformation, with digital platforms serving as breeding grounds for the rapid dissemination of false narratives and coordinated harassment campaigns. However, the increased political literacy and accessibility of fact-checking resources among the public have the potential to mitigate the influence of these pernicious tactics, as individuals have tools to navigate the information landscape and discerning truth from fiction (Fridkin et al., 2016).

Paradoxically, the very strategies employed to undermine women’s political participation have at times backfired, leading to increased support and solidarity among female voters and activists. Women have leveraged social media and other digital tools to counter gendered disinformation, amplify their voices, and galvanize political support, resulting in a more engaged and empowered electorate.

To effectively address the challenge of gendered disinformation, a comprehensive approach is required—one that tackles the underlying biases, power structures, and societal norms that perpetuate these harmful practices. By empowering women’s political participation, promoting digital literacy, and actively countering the spread of false and misleading narratives, we can work toward a more inclusive and equitable democratic landscape in the Asia Pacific region, particularly Southeast Asia.

The memory of trailblazers like Daphne Caruana Galizia, whose tragic death highlighted the grave dangers faced by women who challenge entrenched power structures, serves as a clarion call to action. It is our collective responsibility to confront and dismantle the forces that seek to silence the truth, ensuring that the voices of women and gender minorities are heard, respected, and empowered to shape the future of our democracies.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Mytha Eliva Veritasia

Mytha Eliva Veritasia is a lecturer at the Communication Department, Faculty of Social and Political Sciences, Universitas Airlangga, Surabaya, Indonesia. She teaches various interdisciplinary courses like Media, Gender and Identity; Cyberculture; Public Speaking; and Marketing Communication.

Amalia Nurul Muthmainnah

Amalia Nurul Muthmainnah is a lecturer in the Communication Science program at the Faculty of Social and Political Sciences, Universitas 17 Agustus 1945 Surabaya, Surabaya, Indonesia. Her teaching expertise and research interests are journalism and media management, as well as media and digital literacy for the youth.

Mathias-Felipe de-Lima-Santos

Mathias-Felipe de-Lima-Santos is a lecturer at Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia. His research interests include the changing nature of communications driven by technological innovations, particularly in journalism, media and online social networks.