Parity in France: A ‘Dual Track’ Solution to Women's Under-Representation

Abstract

As the world's first country to adopt a ‘parity’ quota, France could be considered an example of the growing phenomenon of quotas as a ‘fast track’ solution to the problem of women's under-representation. French universalism had impeded a more ‘incremental track’ to gender equality whilst placing a constitutional ban on quotas. The design of ‘parity’ as a means of overcoming these hurdles was both normative and pragmatic. Parity could be considered an example of a symbolic policy, where grand claims were made early on but the corresponding legislation only became effective over time. While the practical constraints on parity have delayed its impact, the recognition of the need to ‘legislate equality’ has had a more profound impact, leading to the creep of parity into other areas such as ethnic minority representation and parity in the workplace. This broader societal change is indicative of a ‘dual track’ to gender equality.

Acknowledgements

In loving memory of Sadie Murkoff, who left this world while I was writing this paper, but never left my heart.

Notes

1. Placement mandates refer to the obligation to place women in winnable constituencies and/or high enough up a party list to permit their election.

2. This and all other translations are my own.

3. In Mitterrand et les Françaises, Jane Jenson and Mariette Sineau (1995) demonstrate in detail how the 14 years of the supposedly more women-friendly Socialists under Mitterrand resulted in some symbolic changes but surprisingly few concrete gains for women.

4. The electoral system was changed from two-round single-member plurality (SMP) to proportional representation for the 1986 election. The incoming government immediately reversed the electoral system back to two-round SMP.

5. The partisan abuse of electoral system reform in 1986 also ensured that subsequent electoral reform was off the table during the negotiations for parity.

6. Women were even less present as mayors of larger towns with 3,500 or more inhabitants (9.6 per cent), even though it was only in the larger towns that parity applied.

7. Prior to the regional elections of 2010, only one woman (Ségolène Royal) presided over a region.

8. The minimum district size for the use of proportional representation, and hence the application of parity, in senatorial elections was lowered from five to three in 2000, but then raised to four in 2003.

9. A reform in 2007 extended the obligation of parity to local and regional executives.

10. In 2002, women were 38.9 per cent of candidates and 12.3 per cent of those elected; in 2007, they were 41.6 per cent of candidates and 18.5 per cent of deputies.

11. The UDF divided in 2007 into two parties (Nouveau Centre and MoDem), both of whom performed badly for women in 2007, perhaps as a result of the split.