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ABSTRACT
Two broad and seemingly contradictory perspectives exist on U.S. alliances with South Korea and Taiwan. One focuses on how Washington carefully designed the alliances to rein in its overly warlike junior partners, while the other focuses on the surprisingly big influence of Seoul and Taipei that belied the power asymmetry in their relationships with Washington. This paper shows the influence of small allies is not a static feature of asymmetrical alliances designed to restrain them; small allies might exert unduly large influence at the stage of alliance formation, but once the alliance is institutionalised, they may lose much of the initial leverage. The findings lend empirical support to the view of alliances as a stabilising force, rather than a force multiplier, in international politics.
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No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
Notes
1 Jeremy Pressman, Warring Friends: Alliance Restraint in International Politics (Cornell University Press 2008); Victor D. Cha, ‘Powerplay: Origins of the US Alliance System in Asia’, International Security 34/3 (2010), 158–96.
2 Robert O. Keohane, ‘The Big Influence of Small Allies’, Foreign Policy 2 (1971), 161–82; Chang Jin Park, ‘The Influence of Small States upon the Superpowers: United States-South Korean Relations as a Case Study, 1950–53’, World Politics 28/1 (1975), 97–117.
3 Philip H. Gordon, and Jeremy Shapiro, ‘How Trump Killed the Atlantic Alliance’, Foreign Affairs 26 (2019).
4 Kenneth N. Waltz, Theory of International Politics (New York: McGraw-Hill 1979).
5 James D. Morrow, ‘Alliances and Asymmetry: An Alternative to the Capability Aggregation Model of Alliances’, American Journal of Political Science (1991), 904–33.
6 Michael N. Barnett, and Jack S. Levy, ‘Domestic Sources of Alliances and Alignments: The Case of Egypt, 1962–73’, International Organization 45/3 (1991); Randolph M. Siverson, and Juliann Emmons, ‘Birds of a Feather: Democratic Political Systems and Alliance Choices in the Twentieth Century’, Journal of Conflict Resolution 35/2 (1991), 285–306.
7 Christopher Gelpi, ‘Alliances as Instruments of Intra-allied Control’, in Helga Haftendorn, Robert Keohane and Celeste Wallander (eds.), Imperfect Unions: Security Institutions Over Time and Space (Oxford University Press 1999), 107–39.
8 Songying Fang, Jesse C. Johnson, and Brett Ashley Leeds, ‘To Concede or to Resist? The Restraining Effect of Military Alliances’, International Organization 68/4 (2014), 775–809.
9 Pressman, Warring Friends, 121–26.
10 Brett V. Benson, Constructing International Security: Alliances, Deterrence, and Moral Hazard (Cambridge University Press 2012).
11 Stephen M. Walt, ‘Why Alliances Endure or Collapse’, Survival 39/1 (1997), 157.
12 Morrow, ‘Alliances and Asymmetry’, 904–33.
13 Michael Mandelbaum The Fate of Nations: The Search for National Security in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries (Cambridge University Press 1988), 101.
14 Glenn H. Snyder, Alliance Politics (Cornell University Press 2007), 181.
15 Keohane, ‘The Big Influence of Small Allies’, 162.
16 Park, ‘The Influence of Small States upon the Superpowers’, 97–98.
17 Stephen Jin-Woo Kim, Master of Manipulation: Syngman Rhee and The Seoul-Washington Alliance, 1953–1960 (Yonsei University Press 2001).
18 Cha, ibid., 158–96.
19 Pressman, Warring Friends, 29–36.
20 Tongfi Kim, ‘Why Alliances Entangle but Seldom Entrap States’, Security Studies 20/3 (2011), 350–77.
21 Kim, Master of Manipulation, 361–2; Benson, Constructing International Security, 142–168.
22 Audrye Wong, ‘Managing Small Allies Amidst Patron–Adversary Rapprochement: A Tale of Two Koreas’, Forthcoming at Asian Security.
23 Alexander Cooley, Base Politics: Democratic Change and The US Military Overseas (Cornell University Press 2008), 106.
24 Walt, ‘Why Alliances Endure or Collapse’, 160.
25 Keohane, ‘The Big Influence of Small Allies’, 63.
26 John Gerring, Case Study Research: Principles and Practices (Cambridge University Press 2007), 213.
27 John Lewis Gaddis, Strategies of Containment: A Critical Appraisal of American National Security Policy during the Cold War (Oxford: Oxford University Press,2005), 107.
28 The Commander in Chief, United Nations Command (Ridgway) to the Joint Chiefs of Staff, 25 February 1952, Foreign Relations of the United States (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office 1984), 1952–1954, Korea, Vol. XV, Part 1, 59–61 (Hereafter FRUS).
29 President Truman to the President of the Republic of Korea (Rhee), 4 March 1952, in ibid., 75.
30 The President of the Republic of Korea (Rhee) to President Truman, 21 March 1952, in ibid., 115.
31 Memorandum by the Secretary of State to the President, 30 April 1952, in ibid., 185.
32 Memorandum of Telephone Conversation, by Barbara Evans of the Office of the Secretary of States, 2 May 1952, in ibid., 187.
33 Memorandum by John Foster Dulles to Dwight D. Eisenhower, 26 November 1952, in ibid., 694.
34 Memorandum by the Director of the Office of Northeast Asian Affairs (Young) to the Deputy Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs (Johnson), 23 May 1952, in ibid., 237.
35 The Acting Secretary of State to the Embassy in Korea, 22 May 1953, in ibid., 1087.
36 Report by the National Security Council, 7 July 1953, in FRUS, 1952–1954, Korea, Vol. XV, Part 2, 1344.
37 Memorandum of Conversation, by the Director of the Office of Northeast Asian Affairs (Young), 8 April 1953, in FRUS, 1952–1954, Korea, Vol. XV, Part 1, 898.
38 President Eisenhower to the President of the Republic of Korea (Rhee), 23 April 1953, in ibid., 929–30.
39 The Acting Secretary of State to the Embassy in Korea, 22 May 1953, in ibid., 1089.
40 The Secretary of State to the President of the Republic of Korea (Rhee) 11 June 1953, in ibid., 1165.
41 Memorandum of Conversation, by Elizabeth A. Brown of the Office of United Nations Political and Security Affairs 1 August 1953, in ibid., 1463.
42 Park, ‘The Influence of Small States upon the Superpowers’.
43 The Secretary of State to the Embassy in the Republic of China, 30 June 1953, in FRUS, 1952–1954, China and Japan, Volume XIV, Part 1, 217.
44 The Acting Secretary of State to the Embassy in Korea Washington, 15 May 1953, in FRUS, 1952–1954, Korea, Vol. XV, Part 1, 1029–32.
45 The Commander in Chief United Nations Command (Clark) to the Joint Chiefs of Staff, 22 June 1953, in FRUS, 1952–1954, Korea, Vol. XV, Part 2, 1231–4.
46 The Secretary of State to the President of the Republic of Korea (Rhee), 22 June 1953, in ibid., 1239.
47 Memorandum of Conversation, by the Director of the Office of Northeast Asian Affairs (Young), 7 August 1953, in ibid., 1481–8.
48 Memorandum of Conversation, by the Secretary of State, 10 August 1953, in ibid., 1491.
49 Special Estimate, 16 October 1953, in ibid., 1535.
50 Memorandum by the Secretary of State to the President, 21 October 1953, in ibid., 1542–5.
51 Memorandum of Conversation, by the Secretary of state, 5 October 1953, in ibid., 1521–2.
52 Report by the Planning Board to the National Security Council, 22 October 1953, in ibid., 1549.
53 Memorandum by the Joint Chiefs of Staff to the Secretary of Defense (Wilson), 27 October 1953, in ibid., 1563–7.
54 Memorandum by the Director of the Executive Secretariat (Scott) to the Secretary of State, 28 October 1953, in ibid., 1569–70.
55 The Secretary of State to the Vice President, 4 November 1953, in ibid., 1592.
56 The Vice President to the Secretary of State Tokyo, 19 November 1953, in ibid., 1615–6.
57 Memorandum by the Director of the Policy Planning Staff (Bowie) to the Secretary of State, 18 December 1953, in ibid., 1662–6.
58 The Representative for the Korean Political Conference (Dean) to the Department of State, 1 December 1953, in ibid., 1631.
59 Memorandum of Discussion at the 175th Meeting of the National Security Council, Tuesday, 15 December 1953, in ibid., 1661.
60 Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1953, 860–1.
61 President Eisenhower to the President of the Republic of Korea (Rhee), 2 January 1954, in ibid., 1685–6.
62 The Ambassador in Korea (Briggs) to the Department of State, 6 January 1954, in ibid., 835–6.
63 The President of the Republic of Korea (Rhee) to President Eisenhower, 4 February 1954, in ibid., 1747.
64 Memorandum of Conversation, by the Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs (Robertson), 15 February 1954, in ibid., 1749–50.
65 The Ambassador in Korea (Briggs) to the Department of State, 25 March 1954, in ibid., 1766–7.
66 Hagerty Diary, 26 July 1954, in ibid., 1838.
67 Hagerty Diary, 27 July 1954, in ibid., 1841.
68 Hagerty Diary, 30 July 1954, in ibid., 1861.
69 Byung-Kook Kim, ‘The Leviathan: Economic Bureaucracy Under Park’, in Byung-Kook Kim and Ezra F. Vogel (eds.), The Park Chung Hee Era: The Transformation of South Korea (Harvard University Press 2011), 212.
70 Memorandum of Conversation, 14 March 1967, FRUS, 1964–68 Volume XXIX, Part 1, Korea, 235–8.
71 Telegram From the Embassy in Korea to the Department of State, 25 November 1967, in ibid., 292.
72 Telegram From the Commander in Chief of the United Nations Command and of United States Forces, Korea (Bonesteel) to the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (Wheeler), 27 January 1968, in ibid., 317.
73 Telegram From the Embassy in Korea to the Department of State, 24 January 1968, in ibid., 313.
74 Telegram From the Department of State to the Embassy in Korea, 25 January 1968, in ibid., 315.
75 Telegram From the Embassy in Korea to the Department of State, 3 February 1968, in ibid., 320–2.
76 Telegram From the Embassy in Korea to the Department of State, 4 February 1968, in ibid., 324–6.
77 Memorandum From the Under Secretary of State (Katzenbach) to President Johnson, 5 February 1968, in ibid., 327.
78 Telegram From the Department of State to the Embassy in Korea, 4 February 1968, in ibid., 322–3.
79 Letter From President Pak to President Johnson, 5 February 1968, in ibid., 330.
80 Telegram From the Commander in Chief, United States Forces, Korea (Bonesteel) to the Commander in Chief, Pacific (Sharp), 9 February 1968, in ibid., 356.
81 Telegram From the Department of State to the Embassy in Korea, 7 February 1968, in ibid., 339–41.
82 Telegram From the Embassy in Korea to the Department of State, 10 February 1968, in ibid., 360.
83 Memorandum Prepared by the Department of State, 9 February 1968, in ibid., 358–60.
84 Paper Prepared in the Department of State, undated, in ibid., 356.
85 Telegram From the Department of State to the Embassy in Korea, 11 February 1968, in ibid., 368–9.
86 Notes of the President’s Meeting With Cyrus R. Vance, 15 February 1968, in ibid., 377.
87 Letter From the Ambassador to Korea (Porter) to the Assistant Secretary of State for East Asian and Pacific Affairs (Bundy), 27 February 1968, in ibid., 392.
88 Telegram From the Embassy in Korea to the Department of State, 14 May 1968, in ibid., 425.
89 Memorandum by the Joint Chiefs of Staff to the Secretary of Defense (Lovett), 4 March 1952. FRUS 1952–1954. China and Japan: Volume XIV, Part 1, 15–18.
90 National Intelligence Estimate, Washington, 14 September 1954, in ibid., 631 and 641.
91 Keohane, ‘The Big Influence of Small Allies’, 162–163.
92 Memorandum of the Substance of Discussion at a Department of State–Joint Chiefs of Staff Meeting, Held at the Pentagon, 27 March 1953, in ibid., 165.
93 The Chargé in the Republic of China (Jones) to the Department of State, Taipei, 22 July 1952, in ibid., 76.
94 Memorandum of Discussion at the 139th Meeting of the National Security Council, Washington, 8 April 1953, in ibid., 182.
95 The Secretary of State to the Embassy in the Republic of China, 17 April 1953, in ibid., 191–2.
96 The Chargé in the Republic of China (Jones) to the Department of State, 18 June 1953, in ibid., 205–10.
97 Memorandum of Conversation, by the Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs (Allison), 19 March 1953, in ibid., 158.
98 The President of the Republic of China (Chiang Kai-shek) to President Eisenhower, 7 June 1953, in ibid., 204.
99 The Chargé in the Republic of China (Jones) to the Department of State 24 June 1953, in ibid., 213.
100 The Secretary of State to the Embassy in the Republic of China, 24 June 1953, in ibid., 214.
101 The Secretary of State to the Embassy in the Republic of China, 25 June 1953, in ibid., 214–5.
102 The Ambassador in the Republic of China (Rankin) to the Department of State 19 December 1953, in ibid., 343–4.
103 The Ambassador in the Republic of China (Rankin) to the Department of State, 19 December 1953, in ibid., 344.
104 The Charge in the Republic of China (Jones) to the Department of State, 24 February 1954, in ibid., 367.
105 Memorandum of Discussion at the 214th Meeting of the National Security Council, 12 September 1954, in ibid., 617.
106 Memorandum by the Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs (Robertson) to the Secretary of State, 7 October 1954, in ibid., 706–7.
107 Memorandum of Conversation, by the Director of the Office of Chinese Affairs (McConaughy), 13 October 1954, in ibid., 728–53.
108 Memorandum by the Acting Director of Central Intelligence (Cabell) to the National Security Council, 2 November 1954, in ibid., 842.
109 Benson, Constructing International Security, 160.
110 Memorandum of a Conversation, Department of State, 12 January 1955, FRUS 1955–1957, China, Volume II, 15.
111 Memorandum of a Telephone Conversation Between the President and the Secretary of State, 18 January 1955, in ibid., 37.
112 National Security Council Report, 15 January 1955, in ibid., 32.
113 Memorandum of a Conversation, 19 January 1955, in ibid., 39.
114 Telegram from the Ambassador in the Republic of China (Rankin) to the Department of State, 23 January 1955, in ibid., 112.
115 Memorandum of a Conversation, The White House, 19 January 1955, in ibid., 41–44.
116 Memorandum for the Record, by the President, 29 January 1955, in ibid., 164.
117 Memorandum of a Conversation, 30 January 1955, in ibid., 175.
118 Memorandum of a Conversation, Department of State, 7 February 1955, in ibid., 237.
119 Telegram from the Secretary of State to the Department of State, 4 March 1955, in ibid., 323.
120 Telegram from the Secretary of State to the Embassy in the Republic of China, 18 May 1955, in ibid., 565–6.
121 Telegram from the Embassy in the Republic of China to the Department of State, 27 August 1958, in ibid., 83–86.
122 Telegram from the Embassy in the Republic of China to the Department of State, 31 August 1958, in ibid., 107.
123 Telegram from the Embassy in the Republic of China to the Department of State, 1 September 1958, in ibid., 111.
124 White House Press Release, 4 September 1958, in ibid., 134–6.
125 Memorandum of Conversation Between President Eisenhower and Secretary of State Dulles, 11 September 1958, in ibid., 162.
126 Telegram from the Embassy in the Republic of China to the Department of State, 20 September 1958, in ibid., 239.
127 Memorandum of Conference with President Eisenhower, 29 September 1958, in ibid., 296.
128 Memorandum from the Central Intelligence Agency’s Deputy Director for Intelligence (Cline) to Director of Central Intelligence McCone, 2 March 1964, FRUS, 1964–1968 Volume XXX, China, 25.
129 Telegram from the Embassy in the Republic of China to the Department of State, 29 January 1964, in ibid., 19–21.
130 Memorandum from Robert W. Komer of the National Security Council Staff to President Johnson, 3 March 1964, in ibid., 26.
131 Memorandum from Robert W. Komer of the National Security Council Staff to President Johnson, 16 March 1964, in ibid., 31.
132 Memorandum of Conversation, 16 April 1964, in ibid., 45.
133 Letter from the Charge to the Republic of China (Clough) to the Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs (Bundy), 22 May 1964, in ibid., 59.
134 National Policy Paper, 11 September 1964, in ibid., 86–94.
135 Letter from the Ambassador to the Republic of China (Wright) to the Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs (Harriman), 26 August 1964, in ibid., 81–82.
136 Telegram from the Department of State to the Embassy in the Republic of China, 4 September 1964, in ibid.
137 Report of Meetings, October 23–24, 1964, in ibid., 84.
138 Memorandum from James C. Thomson, Jr., of the National Security Council Staff to the President’s Special Assistant for National Security Affairs (Bundy), 28 October 1964, in ibid., 117–20.
139 Telegram from the Department of State to the Embassy in the Republic of China, 20 November 1964, in ibid., 129.
140 Memorandum from Robert W. Komer of the National Security Council Staff and the President’s Special Assistant for National Security Affairs (Bundy) to President Johnson, 25 November 1964, in ibid., 133.
141 Telegram from the Department of State to the Embassy in the Republic of China, 21 December 1964, in ibid., 143.
142 Telegram from the Department of State to the Embassy in the Republic of China, 28 January 1966, in ibid., 245–7.
143 Memorandum from James C. Thomson, Jr., of the National Security Council Staff to the President’s Special Assistant for National Security Affairs (Bundy), 3 February 1966, in ibid., 248–9.
144 Telegram from the Embassy in the Republic of China to the Department of State, 5 July 1966, in ibid., 350–1.
145 Telegram from the Embassy in the Republic of China to the Department of State, 5 July 1966, in ibid., 351.
146 Telegram from the Embassy in the Republic of China to the Department of State, 20 September 1966, in ibid., 394.
147 Telegram from the Embassy in the Republic of China to the Department of State, 23 January 1967, in ibid., 507–508.
148 Avery Goldstein, ‘Power transitions, institutions, and China’s rise in East Asia: Theoretical expectations and evidence’, Journal of Strategic Studies 30/4–5 (2007), 639–82.
149 Benson, Constructing International Security, 171–3.
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Claudia J. Kim
Claudia J. Kim is a postdoctoral fellow at Harvard University. Her current research focuses on politics of American military bases abroad. Her work has appeared in Armed Forces & Society, Pacific Review, Journal of Contemporary Asia, and Social Science Japan Journal.