China’s quest for quantum advantage—Strategic and defense innovation at a new frontier

ABSTRACT

China has prioritized quantum science and technology as a critical frontier for its national security and development. To date, Chinese research has already reached a leading position within the discipline, enabled by state support and funding, as well as the recruitment and cultivation of talent. The rapid advances on this front can provide a valuable illustration of the dynamics of China’s evolving innovation ecosystem, including the increased prominence of leading technology companies, and even start-ups, as serious contenders. China’s strategy of military–civil fusion, which aims to create a more integrated ecosystem in science and technology, can contribute to enabling progress in dual-use developments. This case study draws upon the shared framework for this special issue, which provides a method by which to consider the factors that enable defense innovation. Looking forward, these advances could prove consequential for the future strategic balance between China and the United States.

KEYWORDS:

• Quantum science
• quantum technology
• quantum industry
• military–civil fusion
• defense innovation
• emerging technologies
• Chinese military

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

¹ ‘In the 24th collective study session of the Political Bureau of the Central Committee, Xi Jinping a the profound understanding of the significance of advancing the development of quantum science and technology’ [习近平在中央政治局第二十四次集体学习时强调 深刻认识推进量子科技发展重大意义], Xinhua, 17 October 2020, http://www.xinhuanet.com/politics/2020-10/17/c_1126623288.htm.

² There are a range of commentaries and perspectives from experts and scientists. See, for instance: ‘How important is quantum technology to China? Experts: Quantum technology is a strategic domain related to national security and high-quality social and economic development’ [量子科技对中国有多重要?专家:量子科技是事关国家安全和社会经济高质量发展的战略性领域], Global Times, 20 October 2020, https://world.huanqiu.com/article/40MwRNUcSEw.

³ For an academic assessment of the challenges of catching up, particularly in contemporary technologies of greater complexity, see: Andrea Gilli and Mauro Gilli, ‘Why China Has Not Caught Up Yet: Military-Technological Superiority and the Limits of Imitation, Reverse Engineering, and Cyber Espionage’, International Security 43/3 (2019), 141–189.

⁴ Hannas, William C., James Mulvenon, and Anna B. Puglisi. Chinese industrial espionage: Technology acquisition and military modernization. Routledge, 2019.

⁵ Miao Lü [苗绿], Wang Huiyao [王辉耀], Zheng Jinlian [郑金连], ‘Science and Technology Talent Policy Boots Construction of World Science and Technology Power – – Take International Science and Technology Talent Introduction Policy as An Example’ [科技人才政策助推世界科技强国建设 – – 以国际科技人才引进政策突破为例], Bulletin of Chinese Academy of Sciences [中国科学院院刊], 2017.

⁶ Ibid.

⁷ See the official strategy released on innovation-driven development, “The CCP Central Commission and State Council Release the ‘National Innovation-Driven Development Strategy Outline’ [中共中央 国务院印发《国家创新驱动发展战略纲要], Xinhua, 19 May 2016, http://news.xinhuanet.com/politics/2016-05/19/c_1118898033.htm.

⁸ ‘Xi Jinping: More than any other period in history, we need to build a world powerhouse in science and technology’ [习近平:我们比历史上任何时期都更需要建设世界科技强国], Learning China [学习中国], 5 June 2018, htps://china.huanqiu.com/article/9CaKrnK97ka.

⁹ ‘The quantum technology revolution is a major historical opportunity’ [量子科技革命是重大历史机遇], Global Times, 16 January 2021, https://tech.huanqiu.com/article/41Y8oTNbqKs.

¹⁰ ‘Zhao Yong: The “14th Five-Year Plan” is a critical period for rapid breakthroughs in quantum information’ [赵勇:‘十四五’是量子信息快速突破关键时期], 11 March 2021, http://news.sciencenet.cn/htmlnews/2021/3/454421.shtm.

¹¹ ‘Seize the commanding heights of quantum technology: Interview with Pan Jianwei, member of the National Committee of the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference and academician of the Chinese Academy of Sciences’ [抢占量子科技制高点: 访全国政协委员、中国科学院院士潘建伟], Central Commission for Discipline Inspection and State Supervision Commission website, 10 March 2021, http://www.ccdi.gov.cn/yaowen/202103/t20210310_237524.html.

¹² Pan Jianwei [潘建伟], ‘Better promote the development of my country’s quantum technology’ [更好推进我国量子科技发展], Red Flag Manuscript [红旗文稿], 8 December 2020.

¹³ For a more detailed assessment, see also: Elsa B. Kania and John K. Costello, ‘Quantum Hegemony? – China’s Ambitions and the Challenge to U.S. Innovation Leadership’, Center for a New American Security, September 2018, https://www.cnas.org/publications/reports/quantum-hegemony.

¹⁴ ‘Xi Jinping: strive to achieve the party’s goal of strengthening the army in the new era and building the people’s Army into a world-class army in an all-round way’ [习近平:为实现党在新时代的强军目标 把人民军队全面建成世界一流军队而奋斗], Xinhua, 26 October 2017, http://www.xinhuanet.com/politics/19cpcnc/2017-10/26/c_1121862632.htm.

¹⁵ ‘China’s National Defense in the New Era’ [新时代的中国国防], State Council Information Office [国务院新闻办公室], 24 July 2019, http://www.xinhuanet.com/politics/2019-07/24/c_1124792450.htm.

¹⁶ For the initial articulation of this framework, see: Tai Ming Cheung, Thomas Mahnken, and Andrew Ross, ‘Frameworks for Analyzing Chinese Defense and Military Innovation’, Study of Innovation and Technology in China, 2011, https://escholarship.org/uc/item/5cr8j76s.

¹⁷ See the official strategy released on innovation-driven development, “The CCP Central Commission and State Council Release the ‘National Innovation-Driven Development Strategy Outline’ [中共中央 国务院印发《国家创新驱动发展战略纲要], Xinhua, 19 May 2016, http://news.xinhuanet.com/politics/2016-05/19/c_1118898033.htm. See also Xi Jinping’s remarks on this approach in the context of military modernization: ‘Xi Jinping: Comprehensively Advance an Innovation-Driven Development Strategy, Promote New Leaps in National Defence and Military Construction’ [习近平:全面实施创新驱动发展战略 推动国防和军队建设实现新跨越], Xinhua, 13 March 2016, http://news.xinhuanet.com/politics/2016lh/2016-03/13/c_1118316426.htm.

¹⁸ ‘Xi Jinping: Accurately Grasp the New Trend in Global Military Developments and Keep Pace with the Times, Strongly Advancing Military Innovation’ [习近平:准确把握世界军事发展新趋势 与时俱进大力推进军事创新], Xinhua, 30 August 2014, http://news.xinhuanet.com/politics/2014-08/30/c_1112294869.htm.

¹⁹ ‘Military-Civil Fusion Development Committee Established’ [军民融合发展委成立], Xinhua, 23 January 2017, http://news.xinhuanet.com/finance/2017-01/23/c_129458492.htm. ‘13^th Five-Year Science and Technology Military-Civil Fusion Development Special Plan’ (Full Text) [‘十三五’科技军民融合发展专项规划》全文].

²⁰ ‘Xi Jinping: Explanation of the “Proposals of the CCP Central Committee on Formulating the 14th Five-Year Plan for National Economic and Social Development and Long-Term Goals for 2035” [习近平:关于《中共中央关于制定国民经济和社会发展第十四个五年规划和二〇三五年远景目标的建议》的说明], Xinhua, 3 November 2020, https://web.archive.org/web/20201212142251/http://www.xinhuanet.com/politics/leaders/2020-11/03/c_1126693341.htm.

²¹ ‘Quantum Science and Technology: It is necessary to sit firmly on the top of the pyramid, but also promote to the general public’ [量子科技: 既要稳坐金字塔尖,也要走向普罗大众], S&T Daily, 4 March 2021, http://www.stdaily.com/zhuanti/lhssw/2021-03/04/content_1085408.shtml.

²² See: Manjit Kumar, Quantum: Einstein, Bohr, and the Great Debate about the Nature of Reality, W. W. Norton & Company, 2011. Jonathan P. Dowling and Gerard J. Milburne, ‘Quantum Technology: the Second Quantum Revolution’, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 361/1809 (2003), 1655–1674, https://arxiv.org/pdf/quant-ph/0206091.pdf.

²³ Li, Rongji, Juan Xu, Jiabin Yuan, and Dan Li, ‘An Introduction to Quantum Machine Learning Algorithms’, In Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Computer Engineering and Networks, pp. 519–532. Springer, Singapore, 2021. Huang, Y., Hang Lei, and Xiao-Yu Li, ‘A survey on quantum machine learning’, Chinese Journal of Computers 41/1 (2018), 145–163.

²⁴ Liu, Hua-Ying, Xiao-Hui Tian, Changsheng Gu, Pengfei Fan, Xin Ni, Ran Yang, Ji-Ning Zhang et al. ‘Optical-relayed entanglement distribution using drones as mobile nodes’, Physical Review Letters 126/2 (2021), 020503.

²⁵ For instance, the University of Science and Technology of China set up a group specializing in quantum precision measurement in 2010. See: ‘Quantum Precision Measurement Group’, http://staff.ustc.edu.cn/~gyxiang/en/.

²⁶ See: ‘quantum.gov’, https://www.quantum.gov/.

²⁷ ‘Demystifying the world’s first quantum satellite – – Toward the door to “unconditional secure communication”’ [揭秘全球首颗量子卫星 – – 迈向‘无条件安全通信’的大门], China Youth Daily, August 117, 2016, https://www.cas.cn/zt/kjzt/lzwx/jzjd/201608/t20160817_4571527.shtml.

²⁸ ‘Snowden revealed that the U.S. Security Agency is developing a quantum computer that can decipher any code’ [斯诺登曝美国安局正研发量子计算机 可破译任何密码], People’s Daily International,6 January 2014, http://world.people.com.cn/n/2014/0106/c157278-24034339.html. Steven Rich and Barton Gellman, ‘NSA seeks to build quantum computer that could crack most types of encryption’, The Washington Post, 2 January 2014, https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/nsa-seeks-to-build-quantum-computer-that-could-crack-most-types-of-encryption/2014/01/02/8fff297e-7195-11e3-8def-a33011492df2_story.html.

²⁹ ‘China Will Establish a Global Quantum Communications Network By 2030’ [中国将力争在2030年前后建成全球量子通信网], Xinhua, 16 August 2016, http://news.sina.com.cn/c/sd/2016-08-16/doc-ifxuxnpy9658879.shtml.

³⁰ Xu, Feihu, Xiongfeng Ma, Qiang Zhang, Hoi-Kwong Lo, and Jian-Wei Pan. ‘Secure quantum key distribution with realistic devices’, Reviews of Modern Physics 92/2 (2020), 025002.

³¹ ‘Anhui Quantum Communications Innovation Successfully Featured in Politburo Collective Learning Activities’ [安徽量子通信创新成果 亮相中央政治局集体学习活动], Quantum CTek, 30 September 2013, http://www.quantum-sh.com/news/146.html.

³² ‘China Will Establish a Global Quantum Communications Network By 2030’ [中国将力争在2030年前后建成全球量子通信网], Xinhua, 16 August 2016, http://news.sina.com.cn/c/sd/2016-08-16/doc-ifxuxnpy9658879.shtml.

³³ This is said to be the case based on conversations with Chinese academics.

³⁴ ‘NSA Cybersecurity Perspectives on Quantum Key Distribution and Quantum Cryptography’, 26October 2020.

https://www.nsa.gov/News-Features/Feature-Stories/Article-View/Article/2394053/nsa-cybersecurity-perspectives-on-quantum-key-distribution-and-quantum-cryptogr/.

³⁵ “Xi Jinping: Explanations Regarding the ‘CCP Central Committee Suggestions Regarding the Formation of the National Economic and Social Development Thirteenth Five-Year Plan’ [习近平:关于《中共中央关于制定国民经济和社会发展第十三个五年规划的建议》的说明], Xinhua, 3 November 2015, http://news.xinhuanet.com/politics/2015-11/03/c_1117029621_3.htm.

³⁶ ‘Xi Jinping Inspected USTC: Must Advance Independent Innovation in the Process of Opening’ [习近平考察中科大:要在开放中推进自主创新], Xinhua, 27 April 2016, http://news.xinhuanet.com/politics/2016-04/27/c_1118744858.htm.

³⁷ ‘Xi Jinping: Accelerate the Advancement Independent Innovation in Cyber and Information Technology, Unrelentingly Strive towards the Objective of Constructing a Cyber Power’ [习近平:加快推进网络信息技术自主创新 朝着建设网络强国目标不懈努力], Xinhua, 9 October 2016, http://news.xinhuanet.com/politics/2016-10/09/c_1119682204.htm.

³⁸ ‘Xi Focus: Xi stresses advancing development of quantum science and technology’, Xinhua, 17 October 2020, http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2020-10/17/c_139447976.htm. In the 24th collective study session of the Political Bureau of the Central Committee, Xi Jinping a the profound understanding of the significance of advancing the development of quantum science and technology” [习近平在中央政治局第二十四次集体学习时强调 深刻认识推进量子科技发展重大意义], Xinhua, 17 October 2020, http://www.xinhuanet.com/politics/2020-10/17/c_1126623288.htm.

³⁹ ‘Our Nation Launched Four Major Science Research Programs’ [我国启动四项重大科学研究计划], Science and Technology Daily, 16 November 2006.

⁴⁰ “The State Council’s Notice on the Printing and Distribution of ‘Made in China 2025’ [国务院关于印发《中国制造2025》的通知], Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, 19 May 2015, http://www.miit.gov.cn/n11293472/n11293877/n16553775/n16553792/16594486.html.

⁴¹ 973, 863 plans canceled; the National Key Research and Development Plan to start” [973、863计划取消 国家重点研发计划启动], Xinhua, 17 February 2016, http://news.sciencenet.cn/htmlnews/2016/2/338353.shtm.

⁴² “Xi Jinping: Explanations of the ‘CCP Central Committee Suggestions Regarding the Formation of the National Economic and Social Development Thirteenth Five-Year Plan’ [习近平:关于《中共中央关于制定国民经济和社会发展第十三个五年规划的建议》的说明], Xinhua, 3 November 2015, http://news.xinhuanet.com/politics/2015-11/03/c_1117029621_3.htm.

⁴³ “China’s ‘Science and Technology Innovation 2030 Megaprojects Will Newly Add “Artificial Intelligence 2.0”’ [中国‘科技创新2030 – 重大项目’将新增‘人工智能2.0’], Ministry of Science and Technology of the People’s Republic of China, 16 February 2017.

⁴⁴ ‘Notice of the State Council on the Printing and Distribution of the Thirteenth Five-Year National Science and Technology Innovation Plan’ [国务院关于印发‘十三五’国家科技创新规划的通知], State Council, 8 August 2016, http://www.gov.cn/zhengce/content/2016-08/08/content_5098072.htm.

⁴⁵ ‘State Council Notice Regarding the Issuance of the Thirteenth Five-Year National Strategic Emerging Industries Development Plan’ [国务院关于印发‘十三五’国家战略性新兴产业发展规划的通知],19 December 2016, http://www.gov.cn/zhengce/content/2016-12/19/content_5150090.htm.

⁴⁶ ‘Guiding Opinions on Expanding Investment in Strategic Emerging Industries and Cultivating Strengthened New Growth Points and Growth Poles’ [关于扩大战略性新兴产业投资 培育壮大新增长点增长极的指导意见], NDRC High Technology (2020) Document No. 1409.号.

⁴⁷ ‘Proposal of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China on Formulating the Fourteenth Five-Year Plan for National Economic and Social Development and the Long-term Goals for 2035’ [中共中央关于制定国民经济和社会发展第十四个五年规划和二〇三五年远景目标的建议], Xinhua, 3 November 2020, http://www.gov.cn/zhengce/2020-11/03/content_5556991.htm. ‘“14th Five-Year Plan” is coming, how will it be released?’ [‘十四五’规划要来了,它将如何出炉?], Xinhua, 27 November 2019, http://www.gov.cn/xinwen/2019-11/27/content_5456153.htm.

⁴⁸ Zhang, Qiang, Feihu Xu, Li Li, Nai-Le Liu, and Jian-Wei Pan, ‘Quantum information research in China’, Quantum Science and Technology 4, no. 4 (2019): 040503.

⁴⁹ ‘State Council’s Several Opinions Regarding Comprehensively Strengthening Basic Research’ (国务院关于全面加强基础科学研究的若干意见], State Council, 31 January 2018, http://www.gov.cn/zhengce/content/2018-01/31/content_5262539.htm.

⁵⁰ ‘China’s quantum science and technology out of the laboratory: communication has advantages, computing needs to catch up’ [中国量子科技走出实验室:通信有优势 计算需追赶], Sina, 18 October 2020, https://finance.sina.com.cn/stock/hyyj/2020-10-18/doc-iiznezxr6702397.shtml.

⁵¹ ‘National Natural Sciences Fund 2016 Supported All Kinds of Projects’ [国家自然科学基金2016年资助各类项目], Xinhua, 29 March 2017, http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:a99L0k3rzoMJ:www.nsfc.gov.cn/publish/portal0/tab351/info68370.htm+&cd=1&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us.

⁵² “Key Special Project of ‘Quantum Control and Quantum Information: 2020 Annual Project Application Guidelines’ [‘量子调控与量子信息’重点专项 2020 年度项目申报指南], http://www.hf.cas.cn/lmjx/glbm/kyghc/kyc_kyghc/kyc_tzggz/202003/P020200331372775273093.pdf .

⁵³ ‘Hundred Yuan Anhui Quantum Science Industry Development Fund Starts Operations’ [百亿元安徽量子科学产业发展基金启动运营], China News Network, 12 December 2017, http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:Yu9KlnNMrE0J:news.sina.com.cn/o/2017-12-12/doc-ifypnyqi4346545.shtml+&cd=4&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us.

⁵⁴ ‘Technology leads innovation and breakthroughs; Shandong is unswervingly building an innovative province’ [科技引领创新突破 山东坚定不移建设创新大省], 15 May 2021, http://sd.people.com.cn/n2/2021/0515/c166192-34726892.html.

⁵⁵ Guo Rui, ‘China’s tech hub Shenzhen to invest US$108 billion in R&D over 5 years’, 7 May 2021, https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3132651/chinas-tech-hub-shenzhen-invest-us108-billion-rd-over-5-years.

⁵⁶ China quantum technology accelerates the realization of space-earth integration” [中国量子科技加快实现天地一体化], People’s Daily [人民日报], 10 November 2020, http://www.xinhuanet.com/tech/2020-11/10/c_1126719068.htm.

⁵⁷ The sources and additional information are available upon request.

⁵⁸ ‘13^th Five-Year Science and Technology Military-Civil Fusion Development Special Plan’ (Full Text) [‘十三五’科技军民融合发展专项规划》全文].

⁵⁹ ‘National University of Defense Technology’s Quantum Information Interdisciplinary Center recruits postdoctoral fellows and experimental technical engineers’[国防科学技术大学量子信息学科交叉中心招聘博士后以及实验技术工程师], National University of Defense Technology, 10 June 2016, https://www.nudt.edu.cn/rczp/6745154b0a7344d795a05e3f2465ffb2.htm.

⁶⁰ Jeanne Whalen, ‘The quantum revolution is coming, and Chinese scientists are at the forefront’, The Washington Post, 18 August 2019, https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2019/08/18/quantum-revolution-is-coming-chinese-scientists-are-forefront/.

⁶¹ ‘Martinis Group: Josephson Junction Quantum Computing at UCSB’, https://web.physics.ucsb.edu/~martinisgroup/alumni.shtml.

⁶² For a detailed assessment of talent recruitment, see also: Alex Joske, ‘Hunting the Phoenix’, Australian Strategic Policy Institue, https://www.aspi.org.au/report/hunting-phoenix.

⁶³ For Alibaba’s recruitment, see, for instance: Alizila Staff, ‘Alibaba Hires Chief Quantum Scientist in Continued Cloud Push’, 13 October 2017, https://www.alizila.com/alibaba-hires-chief-quantum-scientist-in-contineud-cloud-push/.

⁶⁴ -.

⁶⁵ ‘Dialogue with Academician Guo Guangcan: The basic knowledge in the field of quantum information should be cultivated from the university’ [对话郭光灿院士:应该从大学开始培养量子信息领域基础知识], Beijing News, 26 October 2020, http://www.sohu.com/a/427435468_114988.

⁶⁶ Beyond USTC, several Chinese universities, have also developed research programs, including Tsinghua University’s Center for Quantum Information, established in 2011, and National Key Laboratory of Low-Dimensional Quantum Physics, and Fudan University’s Center for Quantum ControlBeyond USTC, several Chinese universities, have also developed research programs, including Tsinghua University’s Center for Quantum Information, established in 2011, and National Key Laboratory of Low-Dimensional Quantum Physics, and Fudan University’s Center for Quantum Control.

⁶⁷ See: Xinhua, http://news.sina.com.cn/c/sd/2016-08-16/doc-ifxuxnpy9658879.shtml.

⁶⁸ Lee Billings, ‘China Shatters “Spooky Action at a Distance” Record, Preps for Quantum Internet’, Scientific American, 15 June 2017, https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/china-shatters-ldquo-spooky-action-at-a-distance-rdquo-record-preps-for-quantum-internet/.

⁶⁹ Ibid.

⁷⁰ Stephen Chen, ‘China building world’s biggest quantum research facility,’ South China Morning Post, 11 September 2017, http://www.scmp.com/news/china/society/article/2110563/china-building-worlds-biggest-quantum-research-facility. “Hefei’s Construction of a National Science Center from ‘Design’ to ‘Construction Map’ [合肥建设国家科学中心 从‘设计图’转为“施工图], China News Network, 13 September 2017, http://www.chinanews.com/gn/2017/09-13/8330201.shtml.

⁷¹ Ibid.

⁷² ‘Anhui Reports on the Construction of the National Laboratory of Quantum Information Science, Total Investment 7 Billion Yuan’ [安徽拟申报建设量子信息科学国家实验室,总投资约70亿元], 11 July 2017, http://news.163.com/17/0711/15/CP2TJ9V7000187VE.html.

⁷³ ‘Forge ahead in the “ongoing” of quantum technology development’ [在量子科技发展‘进行时’中奋进], China Science News [中国科学报], 19 October 2020, http://wap.sciencenet.cn/mobile.php?type=detail&cat=news&id=447084&mobile=1.

⁷⁴ ‘Aliyun and Chinese Academy of Sciences Sign MoU for Quantum Computing Laboratory’, Alibaba, 3 July 2015, http://www.alibabagroup.com/en/news/article?news=p150730.

⁷⁵ Ibid.

⁷⁶ Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hand in Hand with Alibaba Will Establish a ‘Quantum Computing Laboratory’ in Shanghai” [中国科学院携手阿里巴巴在沪建立‘量子计算实验室’], Xinhua, 31 July 2015, http://news.xinhuanet.com/2015-07/31/c_1116104188.htm. ‘Chinese Academy of Sciences – Alibaba Quantum Computing Lab’ [中国科学院 – 阿里巴巴量子计算实验室挂牌], Chinese Academy of Sciences, 2 September 2015, http://www.bsc.cas.cn/gzdt/201509/t20150902_4419884.html.

⁷⁷ ‘Chinese research institute updates Quantum Computing Cloud Platform, grants access to public’, Global Times, 21 April 2021, https://www.globaltimes.cn/page/202104/1221651.shtml.

⁷⁸ ‘China Shipbuilding Industry Corporation and the University of Science and Technology of China Establish Quantum Joint Laboratories’ [中船重工与中国科大成立量子联合实验室], Sina, 28 November 2017, http://news.sina.com.cn/o/2017-11-28/doc-ifypacti8966967.shtml; Jon Grevatt, ‘China looks to quantum technologies to boost naval programmes’, 29 November 2017, http://www.janes.com/article/76021/china-looks-to-quantum-technologies-to-boost-naval-programmes.

⁷⁹ ‘CETC First Single Photon Quantum Radar System Successfully Researched and Developed’ [中国电科首部单光子量子雷达系统研制成功], CETC 14th Research Institute, September 7, http://wmdw.jswmw.com/home/content/?1174-3887947.html.

⁸⁰ ‘Quantum Computing Applications: A Patent Landscape Report’, https://patinformatics.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/Quantum-Applications-Patent-Landscape-Report-Opt.pdf.

⁸¹ ‘Seize the commanding heights of quantum technology: Interview with Pan Jianwei, member of the National Committee of the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference and academician of the Chinese Academy of Sciences’ [抢占量子科技制高点: 访全国政协委员、中国科学院院士潘建伟], Central Commission for Discipline Inspection and State Supervision Commission website, 10 March 2021, http://www.ccdi.gov.cn/yaowen/202103/t20210310_237524.html.

⁸² Stephen Chen, ‘Chinese scientists solve quantum communication’s “nocturnal curse”, paving way for sending of secure messages 24/7’, South China Morning Post, 3 January 2017,http://www.scmp.com/news/china/article/2054219/chinese-scientists-solve-quantum-communications-nocturnal-curse-allowing.

⁸³ See, for instance: Lindsay, Jon R. ‘Surviving the Quantum Cryptopocalypse’, Strategic Studies Quarterly 14/2 (2020), 49–73.

⁸⁴ Yin, Juan, Ji-Gang Ren, Sheng-Kai Liao, Yuan Cao, Wen-Qi Cai, Cheng-Zhi Peng, and Jian-Wei Pan. ‘Quantum Science Experiments with Micius Satellite’, In CLEO: Applications and Technology, pp. JTu3G-4. Optical Society of America, 2019.

⁸⁵ Ji-Gang Ren et al., ‘Ground-to-satellite quantum teleportation’, Nature, 9 August 2017, http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v549/n7670/full/nature23675.html.

⁸⁶ Han, Xuan, Hai-Lin Yong, Ping Xu, Kui-Xing Yang, Shuang-Lin Li, Wei-Yang Wang, Hua-Jian Xue et al. ‘Polarization design for ground-to-satellite quantum entanglement distribution’, Optics Express 28/1 (2020), 369–378.

⁸⁷ Sheng-Kai Liao et al., ‘Satellite-to-ground quantum key distribution’, Nature, 9 August 2017, http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v549/n7670/full/nature23655.html.

⁸⁸ ‘China builds the world’s first satellite-to-earth quantum communication network’ [我国构建全球首个星地量子通信网], Guangming Daily, 8 January 2021, http://www.gov.cn/xinwen/2021-01/08/content_5577894.htm. I.

⁸⁹ ‘Beijing-Shanghai Quantum Communication Network Put into Use’, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 1 September 2017, http://english.cas.cn/newsroom/archive/news_archive/nu2017/201703/t20170324_175288.shtml.

⁹⁰ ‘China Demonstrates Quantum Encryption By Hosting a Video Call’, IEEE Spectrum, 3 October 2017, https://spectrum.ieee.org/tech-talk/telecom/security/china-successfully-demonstrates-quantum-encryption-by-hosting-a-video-call.

⁹¹ ‘Beijing-Shanghai Quantum Communication Network Put into Use,’ Chinese Academy of Sciences, 1 September 2017, http://english.cas.cn/newsroom/archive/news_archive/nu2017/201703/t20170324_175288.shtml.

⁹² ‘China to build global quantum communication network in 2030’, Xinhua, 2 November 2014, http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/china/2014-11/02/c_127169705.htm.

⁹³ Li, Zheng-Da, Rui Zhang, Xu-Fei Yin, Li-Zheng Liu, Yi Hu, Yu-Qiang Fang, Yue-Yang Fei et al. ‘Experimental quantum repeater without quantum memory.’ Nature Photonics 13, no. 9 (2019): 644–648.

⁹⁴ Chen, Yu-Ao, Qiang Zhang, Teng-Yun Chen, Wen-Qi Cai, Sheng-Kai Liao, Jun Zhang, Kai Chen et al., ‘An integrated space-to-ground quantum communication network over 4,600 kilometres’, Nature 589/7841 (2021), 214–219.

⁹⁵ ‘China builds the world’s first satellite-to-earth quantum communication network’ [中国构建全球首个星地量子通信网], Central Commission for Discipline Inspection and State Supervision Commission, http://www.ccdi.gov.cn/zghjf/202101/t20210108_233496.html.

⁹⁶ Quantum Information Technology (QIT): A Patent Landscape Report, https://patinformatics.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/Quantum-Information-Technology-Patent-Landscape-Report-Opt.pdf.

⁹⁷ ‘The world’s first commercial “quantum mobile phone” came out of the quantum communication laboratory’ [球首款商用‘量子手机’问世 量子通信走出实验室], Anhui Business Daily, 7 February 2018, http://ah.sina.com.cn/news/2018-02-07/detail-ifyrhcqz3796393.shtml.

⁹⁸ ‘S&T innovation is the urban temperament integrated into his bones’ [科技創新是融入骨子裡的城市氣質], Chenfei Development and Reform [郃肥發改], 10 August 2020, https://www.xptshanghai.com/keji/detail/483045fbfb.html.

⁹⁹ ‘Jinan will become a 10 billion-class quantum industrial cluster center by 2025’[济南到2025年将成全省百亿级量子产业集群中心], Jinan Times, 6 March 2018, http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:kUJ9TXOzYx4J:news.e23.cn/jnnews/2018-03-06/2018030600030.html+&cd=4&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=au.

¹⁰⁰ Yu Dawei, ‘In China, Quantum Communications Comes of Age’, Caixin, 6 February 2015.

¹⁰¹ Ling Ji et al., ‘Towards quantum communications in free-space seawater’, Optics Express, Volume 25, Issue 17, 2017, https://www.osapublishing.org/oe/abstract.cfm?uri=oe-25-17-19795.

¹⁰² Raymond Wang, ‘Quantum Communications and Chinese SSBN Strategy’, The Diplomat, 4 November 2017, https://thediplomat.com/2017/11/quantum-communications-and-chinese-ssbn-strategy/.

¹⁰³ Zhu Lixin, ‘Progress made in development of quantum memory’, China Daily, 20 August 2016, http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/epaper/2016-08/20/content_26559829.htm.

¹⁰⁴ ‘China Successfully Develops Semiconductor Quantum Chip,’ Chinese Academy of Sciences, 12 August 2016, http://english.cas.cn/newsroom/news/201608/t20160812_166433.shtml.

¹⁰⁵ ‘China Makes New Breakthrough in Quantum Computation’, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 26 August 2016, http://english.cas.cn/newsroom/mutimedia_news/201608/t20160826_166818.shtml.

¹⁰⁶ ‘Ten superconducting qubits entangled by physicists in China’, Physics World, April 2017, http://physicsworld.com/cws/article/news/2017/apr/13/ten-superconducting-qubits-entangled-by-physicists-in-china.

¹⁰⁷ ‘Scientists Create 20-qubit Schrödinger Cat States with Superconducting Quantum Processor’, 12 August 2019, http://english.cas.cn/newsroom/research_news/phys/201908/t20190812_214026.shtml. However, foreign media accounts of the event reported that a German team that first reached 20 qubits, and the Chinese team then replicated the work with 18. ‘187 Nanoseconds, Witness the Miracle of 20 Qubit Entangled States’ [187纳秒,见证20量子比特纠缠态奇迹], Xinhua Net [新华网], 15 August 2019, http://www.xinhuanet.com/tech/2019-08/15/c_1124877158.htm.

¹⁰⁸ Sundar Pichai, ‘What our quantum computing milestone means’, Google, 23 October 2019, https://www.blog.google/perspectives/sundar-pichai/what-our-quantum-computing-milestone-means/.

¹⁰⁹ ‘New Analysis: Has Humanity Realized “Quantum Hegemony” for the First Time?’ [新闻分析:人类首次实现‘量子霸权’了吗], Xinhua Net [新华网], 24 October 2019, http://www.xinhuanet.com/tech/2019-10/24/c_1125147396.htm.

¹¹⁰ ‘My country’s scientists build 76-photon quantum computing prototype “Jiuzhang”’ [我科学家构建76个光子量子计算原型机‘九章’], Science and Technology Daily [科技日报], 4 December 2020.

¹¹¹ Qiang, Xiaogang, Yizhi Wang, Shichuan Xue, Renyou Ge, Lifeng Chen, Yingwen Liu, Anqi Huang et al. ‘Implementing graph-theoretic quantum algorithms on a silicon photonic quantum walk processor.’ Science Advances 7, no. 9 (2021): eabb8375.

¹¹² Philip Ball, ‘Physicists in China challenge Google’s “quantum advantage”’, Nature, 3 December 2020, https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-020-03434-7.

¹¹³ Zhong, Han-Sen, Hui Wang, Yu-Hao Deng, Ming-Cheng Chen, Li-Chao Peng, Yi-Han Luo, Jian Qin et al. ‘Quantum computational advantage using photons’, Science (2020).

¹¹⁴ ‘Pan Jianwei Reveals the Three Stages of Quantum Computing Development’ [潘建伟揭示量子计算发展三阶段], People’s Net [人民网], 15 January 2020, http://scitech.people.com.cn/n1/2020/0115/c1007-31549405.html.

¹¹⁵ ‘China Focus: Chinese scientists achieve quantum computational advantage’, Xinhua, 4 December 2020, http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2020-12/04/c_139561941.htm.

¹¹⁶ Wan Lin, ‘Chinese team designs 62-qubit quantum processor with world’s largest number of superconducting qubits’, Global Times, 9 May 2021, https://www.globaltimes.cn/page/202105/1222944.shtml.

¹¹⁷ Ibid.

¹¹⁸ Ibid.

¹¹⁹ Jeremy Hsu, ‘Photonic Quantum Computer Displays “Supremacy” Over Supercomputers’, IEEE Spectrum, 9 December 2020, https://spectrum.ieee.org/tech-talk/computing/hardware/photonic-quantum-computer-shows-advantage-over-supercomputer.

¹²⁰ ‘Baidu Establishes Institute for Quantum Computing’, 36Kr, 9 March 2018, https://pandaily.com/baidu-establishes-institute-for-quantum-computing-starting-quantum-rivalry-with-alibaba-and-tencent/.

¹²¹ ‘Tencent Quantum Lab: About Us’, https://quantum.tencent.com/en-us/about/.

¹²² ‘Introducing Paddle Quantum: How Baidu’s Deep Learning Platform PaddlePaddle Empowers Quantum Computing’, 27 May 2020, http://research.baidu.com/Blog/index-view?id=137.

¹²³ Man-Hong Yung ‘Going beyond Moore’s Law with quantum computing’, Huawei, 28 December 2018, https://www.huawei.com/us/publications/communicate/86/quantum-computing-ai.

¹²⁴ “Seize new highs and accelerate the transformation of ‘flower of science and technology’ into ‘fruit of industry’ [抢占创新高点 加快‘科技之花’转化为‘产业之果’], Anhui News Net [安徽新闻网], 11 May 2020.

¹²⁵ Ibid.

¹²⁶ ‘Essence Quantum and Jinghe Integration to Build a Joint Laboratory of Quantum Computing Chips’ [本源量子与晶合集成共建量子计算芯片联合实验室], Anhui Daily [安徽日报], 3 April 2021.

¹²⁷ ‘Chinese firms to set up quantum chip R&D lab to catch up with global leaders’, Global Times, 11 April 2021, https://www.globaltimes.cn/page/202104/1220767.shtml.

¹²⁸ ‘Chinese firms to set up quantum chip R&D lab to catch up with global leaders’, Global Times, 11 April 2021, https://www.globaltimes.cn/page/202104/1220767.shtml.

¹²⁹ ‘Quantum computing is changing from a “toy” to a “tool”-Interview with Pan Jianwei, an academician of the Chinese Academy of Sciences and a professor at the University of Science and Technology of China’ [量子计算正从‘玩具’变成‘工具’ – – 访中国科学院院士、中国科学技术大学教授潘建伟], Science and Technology Daily, 4 January 2021, http://www.hfnl.ustc.edu.cn/detail?id=17687.

¹³⁰ Stephen Chen, ‘Has China developed the world’s most powerful submarine detector?’, The South China Morning Post, 24 June 2017, http://www.scmp.com/news/china/society/article/2099640/has-china-developed-worlds-most-powerful-submarine-detector.

¹³¹ China Electronics Technology Group Corporation’s (CETC) 14th Research Institute’s Intelligent Sensing Technology Key Laboratory (智能感知技术重点实验室) ‘The Coming of the Quantum Radar That Makes Stealth Fighter in Profile’ [让隐形战机显形的量子雷达来了], Science and Technology Daily, 13 September 2016. ‘China’s First Single-Photon Quantum Radar Successfully Developed’, [中国首部单光子量子雷达系统研制成功], CETC, 18 September 2016, http://www.cetc.com.cn/zgdzkj/_300931/_300939/445284/index.html.

¹³² ‘New research signals big future for quantum radar’, Phys.org, 26 February 2015, http://phys.org/news/2015-02-big-future-quantum-radar.html.

¹³³ Wang Shilong [王士龙], ‘The application prospects of quantum radar in future electronic warfare’ [量子雷达在未来电子战中的应用前景], Information and Communication [信息通信] 3 (2019).

¹³⁴ Cho, Adrian. ‘Quantum Flashlight Pierces the Darkness With a Few Percent as Many Photons.’ (2008): 1433–1443.

¹³⁵ Shapiro, Jeffrey H. ‘The quantum illumination story’, IEEE Aerospace and Electronic Systems Magazine 35/4 (2020), 8–20.

¹³⁶ ‘The Coming of the Quantum Radar That Makes Stealth Fighter in Profile’ [让隐形战机显形的量子雷达来了], Science and Technology Daily, 13 September 2016. ‘China’s First Single-Photon Quantum Radar Successfully Developed’ [中国首部单光子量子雷达系统研制成功], CETC, 18 September 2016, http://www.cetc.com.cn/zgdzkj/_300931/_300939/445284/index.html.

¹³⁷ Chen Jian [陈健], and Ban Feihu [班飞虎], ‘The main impact of quantum information technology on the military field’ [量子信息技术对军事领域的主要影响], Military Digest [军事文摘] (2020).

¹³⁸ Ye Zheng [叶征], Lectures on the Science of Information Operations [信息作战学习教程], Military Science Press [军事科学出版社], 2013, p. 79.

¹³⁹ Tu Chenxin [屠晨昕], ‘Quantum Technology: Remodeling Humankind’s Military Affairs Forces’ [量子技术:重塑人类军事力量], Qianjiang Evening News [黔江晚报], 4 June 2014.

¹⁴⁰ ‘Researcher Qiang Xiaogang tells you: “Quantum Computing” with Infinite Potential’ [强晓刚研究员为你讲述:潜力无穷的‘量子计算’], China Military Network, 16 April 2021, http://www.81.cn/ss/2021-04/16/content_10023644.htm.

¹⁴¹ Yuan Yi [袁艺], Quantum Cryptography: The ‘Magic Weapon’ in Future Warfare [量子密码:未来战争‘神器’], Guangming Daily [光明日报], 28 May 2014.

¹⁴² Gao Dongguang [高东广], ‘Quantum: “Dark Horse” was born beyond the ordinary’ [量子:‘黑马’出世超凡脱俗], China Military Online, 15 February 2019, http://www.81.cn/jfjbmap/content/2019-02/15/content_227391.htm.

¹⁴³ An Weiping [安卫平], ‘Quantum Communications Sparks Off Transformation in the Military Domain [量子通信引发军事领域变革]’, PLA Daily, 27 September 2016, http://jz.chinamil.com.cn/n2014/tp/content_7278464.htm.

¹⁴⁴ Ibid.

¹⁴⁵ This is consistent with the theory of ‘creative insecurity’ that Taylor proposed. Mark Zachary Taylor, The Politics of Innovation: Why Some Countries Are Better Than Others at Science and Technology, Oxford University Press, 2016.

¹⁴⁶ ‘How To Achieve Paradigm Changes in the Domain of National Defence Science and Technology’ [国防科技领域如何实现弯道超车], PLA Daily, 30 June 2016, http://jz.chinamil.com.cn/n2014/tp/content_7126648.htm.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Elsa B. Kania

Elsa Kania is a PhD candidate in Harvard University’s Department of Government, and she is also an Adjunct Senior Fellow with the Technology and National Security Program at the Center for a New American Security (CNAS). The views expressed in this article are those of the author alone.