In the right place at the right time: US signals intelligence relations with Scandinavia,1945–1960

Abstract

This paper demonstrates that US–Scandinavian intelligence relations in general, and Signals Intelligence (Sigint) relations in particular, during the period 1945 through 1960 were more extensive and complicated than had previously been believed. Bilateral US intelligence liaison relations with nominally neutral Sweden were of particular importance in the early years of the Cold War given its geographic location adjacent to the northwestern portion of the USSR. Moreover, the importance of Sigint received from the three principal Scandinavian countries covered by this paper (Norway, Denmark, and Sweden) proved to be quite important to the US intelligence community during the early years of the Cold War, when the US Sigint infrastructure was relatively weak and stretched thin by commitments in Asia and elsewhere. This paper covers the quantity, quality, and types of intelligence information provided to the US by each of the Scandinavian nations, demonstrating that the nature of US intelligence relations with these countries changed substantially as time went by.

Key Words:

• Scandinavia
• United States
• intelligence liaison

Notes

¹Confidential interviews.

²Memo, Commander Seventh Fleet to Chief of Naval Operations, Sino-American Special Technical Cooperative Organization Agreement – Termination Agreement for, 25 April 1946, RG-80, Entry 32J CNO/SecNav Top Secret Decimal File, Box 43, File: 1946 A14-7, National Archives, College Park, Maryland (hereafter ‘NA, CP’).

³Confidential interview.

⁴Memo, Strategic Services Unit, Germany to Wisner, Monthly Report of Steering Division, November 5, 1945, p. 3, RG-226, Entry 214, Box 4, Folder 19, NA, CP.

⁵Memo, Lovett to Secretary of War, Report of Committee Appointed by the Secretary of War to Study War Dept. Intelligence Activities, 5 Dec. 1945, 6, RG-165, Entry 15 US Army Chief of Staff Top Secret Decimal File 1944–1945, Box 9, File: 350.05, NA, CP.

⁶Memo, Wright to Director of Central Intelligence, Conversations with Chiefs of Foreign Intelligence Agencies, 4 Aug. 1947, 2, RG-263, CIA Reference Collection, Document No. CIA-RDP80R01731R000700130001-4, NA, CP.

⁷Memo, Douglass to Galloway, Mr. Penrose's Plan for the Proposed Organization of Special Operations Located in Foreign Countries, 9 July 1946, RG-226, Entry 210, Box 324, Folder 4, NA, CP.

⁸Memo with attachment, Crosby Lewis to Foreign Branch M, Transcript of Conference Held in Heidelberg, July 22, 1946, 29 Aug. 1946, LL-50, Quinn, 1, RG-226, Entry 210, Box 368, Folder 2, NA, CP.

⁹Memo, FBL to OIC, Miscellaneous Comments and Observations During European Trip, 30 Aug. 1946, 2, RG-226, Entry 210, Box 368, Folder 2, NA, CP.

¹⁰Memo with attachment, Crosby Lewis to Foreign Branch M, Transcript of Conference Held in Heidelberg, July 22, 1946, 29 Aug. 1946, LL-50 Section, 3, RG-226, Entry 210, Box 368, Folder 2, NA, CP.

¹¹Wilhelm Agrell, Venona:Spåren från ett underrättelsekrig (Lund: Historiska Media 2003), 103.

¹²Confidential interview.

¹³Confidential interviews.

¹⁴Msg, No. 451, USMA AMEMBASSY Oslo Norway to War Dept., 13 Aug. 1946, and Msg, No. 453, MA Oslo Norway to War Dept., 16 Aug. 1946, both in RG-18, Entry 5 AAF Decimal File 1942–47, Box 39, File: MC 5600–5799 July–Aug. 1946, NA, CP.

¹⁵Msg, No. 456, USMA Oslo Norway to War Dept., 23 Aug. 1946, RG-18, Entry 5 AAF Decimal File 1942–1947, Box 39, File: MC 5800–5999 Aug.–Sept. 1946, NA, CP.

¹⁶Telegram, No. 654, Copenhagen to Secretary of State, 29 Sept., 1947, RG-84, Entry 2387 Embassy Copenhagen Top Secret General Records 1947–1949, Box 1, File: Telegrams File No. 824.5 Greenland, NA, CP.

¹⁷Telegram, No. 661, Copenhagen to Secretary of State, 30 Sept. 1947, RG-84, Entry 2387 Embassy Copenhagen Top Secret General Records 1947–1949, Box 1, File: Telegrams File No. 824.5 Greenland, NA, CP.

¹⁸Telegram, No. 857, Marvel to SecState, 23 Dec. 1947, RG-84, Entry 2387 Embassy Copenhagen Top Secret General Records 1947–1949, Box 1, File: Telegrams File No. 102.2 - 831 1947, NA, CP.

¹⁹Msg, No. 48, Military Attaché Copenhagen to War Dept., March 13, 1946, RG-18, Entry 5 AAF Top Secret Correspondence File 1942–1947, Box 36, File: MC 4400–4599 March 1946, NA, CP.

²⁰See for example SD-5552, Memo, Hennings to Director of Intelligence, War Dept. General Staff, Intelligence from Swedish Source, 10 July 1947, RG-319, Entry 1041, Box 174, ID No. 929736, NA, CP.

²¹SD-9344, R-I//156-48, Intelligence Division, US European Command, Soviet Order of Battle, 23 April 1948, RG-319, Entry 1041, Box 187, ID No. 929987, NA, CP; SD-9357, Memo, Detachment ‘Q’, Intelligence Division, US Army, London to Director, Intelligence Division, GSUSA, Swedish Intelligence - USSR, 27 April 1948, RG-319, Entry 1041, Box 187, ID No. 929994, NA, CP; R-I/212-48, Intelligence Division, US European Command, Soviet O/B in USSR and Poland, 9 Aug. 1948, RG-319, Entry 1041, Box 82, File: SD-11065, NA, CP.

²²Msg, ACC 36,USMILATTACHE AMEMBASSY Stockholm, Sweden to Dept. of the Army, 5 April 1948, RG-318, Entry 58, Box 124, File: Spain-Sweden-Switzerland 1948, NA, CP.

²³SD-9344, R-I//156-48, Intelligence Division, U.S. European Command, Soviet Order of Battle, April 23, 1948, p. 7, RG-319, Entry 1041, Box 187, ID No. 929987, NA, CP.

²⁴TS Cont. No. 2-2290, Memo for Record, 18 June 1948, 2, RG-341, Entry 214, Box 42, File: 2-2200 - 2-2299, NA, CP.

²⁵Msg, MA 250, USMILATTACHE AMEMBASSY Copenhagen Denmark to Dept. of the Army, 23 Aug. 1948, RG-319, Entry 58, Box 113, File: Denmark-Egypt 1948, NA, CP.

²⁶The Oktyober Revolutsiya was in fact an old Marat-class World War I-vintage battle cruiser. But the original intelligence report states that the capital ship spotted during the naval exercise was a Sverdlor-class light cruiser. This discrepancy was caught later by an ONI intelligence analyst commenting on the original report from Sweden.

²⁷Msg, DTG 291455Z, ALUSNA Stockholm Sweden to CNI, 29 Sept. 1948, RG-319, Entry 58, Box 131, File: 1. FR Navy 1-1-48 - 10-31-48, NA, CP.

²⁸Msg, MA-264, USMILATTACHE AMEMBASSY Copenhagen Denmark to Director of Intelligence Dept. of the Army, 6 Oct. 1948, RG-319, Entry 58, Box 113, File: Denmark-Egypt 1948, NA, CP.

²⁹Memo, Schow to Magruder, Analysis of US-USSR Relations of Past Four Weeks, 25 Oct. 1948, Enclosure ‘A’, 6, RG-549 Records of the US Army in Europe (USAREUR), Entry 6, HQ EUCOM, TS Decimal File, Box 353, File: TS 350.09 USSR (1), NA, CP.

³⁰Lennart Andersson and Leif Hellström, Bortom Horisonten: Svensk flygspaning mot Sovjetunionen: 1946–1952 (Stockholm: Freddy Stenboms förlag 2002), 35–36, 186.

³¹MS, Allen Welsh Dulles as Director of Central Intelligence, Vol.II, . 81, RG-263, NA, CP.

³²Memo, Everest to Chief of Staff, Daily Activity Report, dated 26 Jan. 1949, RG-341, Entry 214, Box 44, File 2-6100 - 2-6199, NA, CP.

³³Memo, Acting Chief, B/EE, ORE to Director of Central Intelligence, Information on Soviet Armed Forces, 25 May 1949, RG-263, CIA Reference Collection, Document No. CIA-RDP78-01617A000500190001-2, NA, CP.

³⁴Chief of Naval Operations (OP-32), SIS 50-17, Soviet Intelligence Summary, 25 April 1950, 13, RG-263, CIA Reference Collection, Document No. CIA-RDP56S00490 A000700090018-0, NA, CP.

³⁵Confidential interview. See also CIA, Report, Description and Estimate of the Situation Within the Eastern Bloc at Beginning of 1952, 1952, 31, RG-263, CIA Reference Collection, Document No. CIA-RDP83-00415R011100220007-6, NA, CP.

³⁶FSRO-481, SSU Counter-Intelligence Summary, No. 14, Series II, 1 Oct. 1946, 9, RG-226, Entry 211, Box 17, Folder 1, NA, CP.

³⁷SD-8810-2, R-71-48, Military Attache Norway, Talk With General Helset, March 19, 1948, pp. 2-3, RG-319, Entry 1041, Box 36, File: ID No. 925793, NA, CP.

³⁸Msg, S 4837, HQ EUCOM Frankfurt, Germany to WDGID, 13 May 1947, RG-18, Entry 5 AAF Decimal File 1942–1947, Box 42, File: MC 7200–7399 April–June 1947, NA, CP.

³⁹TNX-A-12, Memo, BF1 to FBL, Station Activities, Month of August 1946, 1, RG-226, Entry 214, Box 1, Folder 3, NA, CP.

⁴⁰Msg, MA 636, USMILATTACHE Oslo Norway to Dept. of the Army, 14 Sept. 1948, RG-319, Entry 58, Box 123, File: Norway etc. 1948, NA, CP.

⁴¹Wilhelm Christmas-Møller, Obersten og Kommandoren: Efterretningjeneste, Sikkerhedspolitik og Socialdemokrati, 1945–1955 (Copenhagen: Gylendal 1995), 155.

⁴²Msg, No. 692, MILATTACHE Oslo Norway to CSGID, 26 Aug. 1949, RG-319, Entry 58, Box 140, File: Norway 1949, NA, CP.

⁴³USS Cochino (SS-345), Report of Simulated War Patrol Number 2, 8 Sept. 1949, 1, Operational Archives, Naval Historical Center, Washington DC; Red Austin and Graydon Lewis, ‘U.S.S. Cochino’, NCVA Cryptolog (Fall 1983), 3. A small but highly readable book on the Cochino incident is Commander William J. Lederer, The Last Cruise: The Story of the Sinking of the Submarine, U.S.S. Cochino (NY: William Sloane Associates 1952).

⁴⁴JCS 2010/20, Memo, Chairman Armed Forces Security Agency Council to Joint Chiefs of Staff, Armed Forces Security Agency Requirements for Intercept to be Supplied by the Services, 11 Aug. 1950, RG-218, CCS 334 (NSA), Section 4, Box 98, NA, CP.

⁴⁵Christmas-Møller, Obersten og Kommandoren, 156.

⁴⁶Confidential interview. Regarding the earlier 1950 Comint sharing agreement signed in the UK, see Christmas-Møller, Obersten og Kommandoren, 156.

⁴⁷SD-23684, R-M108-50, Intelligence Division, US European Command, Indications of Imminence of Hostilities, 19 July 1950, 10, RG-319, Entry 1041, Box 123, ID No. 928526, NA, CP.

⁴⁸Dept. of the Army, Assistant Chief of Staff, G-2, Intelligence, Periodic Intelligence Report on Soviet Intentions and Activities, 27 July 1950, Tab ‘A’, 3, RG-319, Entry 4 1950 Chief of Staff Top Secret Decimal Files, Box 3, 091 Russia Case #5, NA, CP.

⁴⁹SRC-3647, CIA, Situation Summary, 10 Aug. 1950, 4, President's Secretary's Files, Box 211, File: Situation Summaries, Harry S. Truman Library, Independence, Missouri.

⁵⁰Joint Intelligence Indications Committee, Report of Indications of Soviet-Communist Intentions, 22 Nov. 1950, Tab A, p. 6, RG-263, CIA Reference Collection, Document No. CIA-RDP91T01172R000400200021-4, NA, CP.

⁵¹ORE-25-50, Spitsbergen, 26 June 1950, CIA Electronic FOIA Reading Room, Document No. 0000258835, <http://www.foia.cia.gov>.

⁵²Letter, Jacobsen to Wright, Request for Information to be Furnished by the Norwegian Government re Soviet Activity on Spitzbergen, March 6, 1951, with enclosure, RG-263, CIA Reference Collection, Document No. CIA-RDP80R0173 1R003600040012-0, NA, CP.

⁵³Msg, MA 529, USARMA STOCKHOLM SWEDEN to DEPTAR FOR G2 WASH DC, 6 Feb. 1951, RG-319, Entry 58, US Army G-2 Top Secret Incoming/Outgoing Cables 1942–1952, Box 172, File: Sweden, NA, CP.

⁵⁴Msg, AFC 444, USAIRA STOCKHOLM SWEDEN SGN WERTHENBAKER to CSAF WASH DC, 26 April 1951, RG-319, Entry 58, US Army G-2 Top Secret Incoming/Outgoing Cables 1942–1952, Box 172, File: Sweden, NA, CP.

⁵⁵SD-31239, R-189-51, OARMA Stockholm, Current Resume of Soviet Activities and Equipment, 1 June 1951, RG-319, Entry 1041, Box 137, ID No. 928874, NA, CP.

⁵⁶CIA, Information Report, Soviet Merchant Ships in the Baltic, 12 Dec. 1951, RG-263, CIA Reference Collection, Document No. CIA-RDP83-00415R010000100001-7, NA, CP.

⁵⁷TS Cont. No. 2-22625, IR-81-52, Loran System in the USSR, 15 Feb. 1952, RG-341, Entry 267, Box 141, File: 2-22625, NA, CP.

⁵⁸Msg, EIAI 0263-A, WEEKA 46, CINCUSAFE WEISBADEN GERMANY to CSUSAF WASH DC FOR AFOIN, 15 Nov. 1952, 1, RG-319, Entry 58, Box 188, File: Germany ‘S’, NA, CP.

⁵⁹U. Alexis Johnson and William B. Sale, Memo of Conversation, 23 June 1952, cited in RM-1349(S), A.L. George, Case Studies of Actual and Alleged Overflights, 1930–1953 – Supplement (Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation, 15 Aug. 1955), TS Supplement, 12.

⁶⁰Msg, USAIRA Stockholm to ALUSNA Copenhagen, 17 April 1950, and Msg, AFCC 123, CG USAFE to CSUSAF, 17 April 1950, cited in RM-1349(S), George, Case Studies of Actual and Alleged Overflights, 1930–1953, 19.

⁶¹Memoranda, Gen. Omar Bradley to Secretary of Defense Louis Johnson, 5 May 1950 and 22 July 1950, and Memo, Secretary of Defense Louis Johnson to President Harry Truman, 24 May 1950, all in President's Secretary's File (PSF), General File, Omar N. Bradley Folder, Harry S. Truman Library, Independence, Missouri.

⁶²Strategic Air Command, Deficiencies Affecting Combat Capability, 1 Oct. 1950, Tab ‘B’, Item: Electronic Intercept Reconnaissance of the USSR, Box B196, File: Item B-7539, Curtis E. LeMay Papers, Library of Congress, Washington DC; TS Cont. No. 2-36422, Memo, Townsend to Director of Operations, Baltic Sea Electronic Reconnaissance Flight of 12 Dec 52, 22 Dec. 1952, RG-341, Entry 214, Box 69, File: 2-36400 - 2-36499, NA, CP; RM-1349(S), George, Case Studies of Actual and Alleged Overflights, 1930–1953, 29–30.

⁶³TS Cont. No. 3-3585, Memo, Townsend to Director of Operations, Recent Electronic Reconnaissance Flight, 1 Oct. 1953, RG-341, Entry 214, Box 75, File: 3-3500 - 3-3599, NA, CP.

⁶⁴Letter, Cook to Central Air Documents Office, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Request for Publication, 31 Aug. 1950, RG-341, Entry 214, File 2-15500-2-15599, NA, CP; Air Technical Intelligence Center, Air Technical Intelligence Study No. 102-EL-23/51-34: Radio-Frequency Transmissions, July-September 1950, A2 - A3, RG-341, Entry 267, File 2-20944, NA, CP.

⁶⁵Memo, Fulcher to Smith, SAC-CINCAFE Electronic Reconnaissance Routes, 18 July 1951, RG-59, Decimal File 1950–1954, Box 3177, File: 711.5622/7-1851, NA, CP.

⁶⁶TS Cont. No. 2-21314, Letter, Walsh to Ackerman, 15 Oct. 1951, 1, RG-341, Entry 214, Box 60, File: 2-21300 – 2-21399, NA, CP.

⁶⁷Confidential interviews.

⁶⁸Memo, Hill to Finletter, Norwegian Base Negotiations, 29 Nov. 1951 with inclosure, Declassified Documents Retrieval Service (DDRS).

⁶⁹Confidential interview.

⁷⁰Letter, Foster to Secretary of State with Inclosure, 22 Feb. 1952, RG-59, Entry 1260 Lot 56D459 General Records of the Executive Secretariat, Box 7, File: DOD Jan.– June 1952, NA, CP; TS Cont. No. 2-23539, Memo, Cook to Directorate of Communications, USAF Security Service Site Survey and Base Rights Requirements, 16 May 1952, with enclosure, RG-341, Entry 214, File: 2-23500 - 2-23599, NA, CP.

⁷¹OCI No. 5195, CIA, Office of Current Intelligence, Current Intelligence Digest, 5 June 1952, 9, RG-263, CIA Reference Collection, Document No. CIA-RDP79T01146A001000170001-3, NA, CP; OCI No. 6456, CIA, Office of Current Intelligence, Current Intelligence Digest, 6 Aug. 1952, 1–2, RG-263, CIA Reference Collection, Document No. CIA-RDP79T01146A001100300001-7, NA, CP.

⁷²TS Cont. No. 3-1929, Memo for Record, 6 May 1953, RG-341, Entry 214, Box 73, File:3-1900 – 3-1999, NA, CP.

⁷³TS Cont. No. 3-1982A, Memo,Townsend to Commanding General, USAF Security Service, Danish Reaction to Request for NATO Base and Intercept Sites, May 20, 1953, RG-341, Entry 214, Box 73, File: 3-1900 - 3-1999, NA, CP.

⁷⁴The Swedish government's official report on this shoot down incident can be found in Royal Ministry for Foreign Affairs, Attacks Upon Two Swedish Aircraft Over the Baltic in June 1952 (Stockholm: Ministry for Foreign Affairs 1952).

⁷⁵Dept. of State, Memo of Conversation, 25 June 1952, RG-59, Entry 1561, Lot 58D776 INR Subject Files 1945–1956, Box 13, File: Sweden, NA, CP.

⁷⁶Confidential interview.

⁷⁷Dispatch No. 9, Amembassy Stockholm to Dept. of State, 3 July 1952, RG-59, Decimal File 1950–1954, Box 3774, File: 758.5622/7-352, NA, CP; Dispatch No. 39, Amembassy Stockholm to Dept. of State, 10 July 10, 1952, RG-59, Decimal File 1950-1954, Box 3774, File: 758.5622/7-1052, NA, CP.

⁷⁸Msg, Embtel No. 299, Stockholm to Secretary of State, 9 Sept. 1952, RG-59, Decimal File 1950–1954, Box 3774, File: 758.5622/9-952, NA, CP.

⁷⁹JIC 611/1, Note by the Secretaries to the Joint Intelligence Committee, Intelligence Estimate of the Technical Characteristics and Tactical Employment of Soviet Electronic Devices, 18 June 1952, 7–8, RG-218, JCS 1951–1953, CCS 350.09 USSR (12-19-49), Section 1, NA, CP; Memo, Breitweiser to Deputy Director, Office of Special International Affairs, Soviet Electronic Aids to Air Navigation, 10 Sept. 1957, RG-263, CIA Reference Collection, Document No. CIA-RDP61S00527A000100180076-5, NA, CP; NIE 11-57, Sino-Soviet Air Defense Capabilities Through Mid-1962, 16 July 1957, 9, RG-263, Entry 29, Box 7, NA, CP; Alfred Price, The History of U.S. Electronic Warfare, Vol. II, The Renaissance Years, 1946 to 1964 (Alexandria, VA: Association of Old Crows, 1989)], 139, 165; Patrick J. McGarvey, CIA: The Myth and the Madness (NY: Saturday Review Press 1972), 47–48; Robert Jackson, Strike Force: The USAF in Britain Since 1948 (London: Robson Books 1986), 71; Bill Gunston, Aircraft of the Soviet Union (London: Osprey 1983), 175.

⁸⁰ Specific EEI for APGC Testing, undated, 1–2, RG-341, Entry 1007 USAF Intelligence Correspondence 1955, Box 25, File: 2-2-5 Electronics, NA, CP.

⁸¹Confidential interview.

⁸² William F. Friedman Catalog, 5 Sept. 1957, 2, 10, RG-457, Yardley Papers, Box 2, Document No. 21, NA, CP.

⁸³Olav Riste, The Norwegian Intelligence Service: 1945–1970 (London: Frank Cass 1999), 227.

⁸⁴Ibid., 85–87.

⁸⁵TCS 95801/75, K.F. Spielmann, Jr, The Evolution of Soviet Strategic Command and Control and Warning 1945–72 (Washington DC: Institute for Defense Analyses, May 1975), 48, 122, partially declassified and on file at the National Security Archive, Washington DC.

⁸⁶NIE 11-61, Probable Intelligence Warning of Soviet Attack on the US, 6 April 1961, 12, RG-263, Entry 29, Box 19, NA, CP.

⁸⁷CIA, Outline for Briefing of deleted Group, 21 Jan. 1953, 9, RG-263, CIA Reference Collection, Document No. CIA-RDP79B00970A000100010122-7, NA, CP.

⁸⁸Riste, Norwegian Intelligence Service, 90–92. See also Ketil Lund, Rapport til Stortinget fra kommisjonen som ble nedsatt av Stortinget for a granske pastander om ulovlig overvaking av norske borgere (Oslo: March 1996), 451.

⁸⁹Memo w. attachments, Margrave to Hillikes, 17 March 1954,RG-59, Decimal File 1950–1954, Box 3774, File: 758.56/3-1754, NA, CP, NARA FOIA.

⁹⁰Msg, Deptel No. 767, Secretary of State to Stockholm, 8 April 1954, RG-59, Decimal File 1950–1954, Box 3774, File: 758.56/4-854, NA, CP, NARA FOIA; Msg, Embtel No. 843, Stockholm to Secretary of State, 9 April 1954, RG-59, Decimal File 1950–1954, Box 3774, File: 758.56/4-954, NA, CP, NARA FOIA; Msg, Deptel No. 257, Secretary of State to Stockholm, 14 Oct. 1954, RG-59, Decimal File 1950–1954, Box 3774, File: 758.56/4-954, NA, CP.

⁹¹Mats R. Berdal, The United States, Norway and the Cold War, 1954–60 (London: Macmillan 1997), 233. fn60.

⁹²Letter, Cabot to Raynor, 12 May 1954, RG-59, Decimal File 1950–1954, Box 3774, File: 758.54/5-1254, NA, CP, NARA FOIA; Letter, Raynor to Cabot, 11 June 1954, RG-59, Decimal File 1950–1954, Box 3774, File: 758.54/5-1254, NA, CP, NARA FOIA; Memo, Raynor to Armstrong, 14 June 1954, RG-59, Decimal File 1950–1954, Box 3774, File: 758.54/5-1254, NA, CP.

⁹³Subject Number: Decimal No. 29.17, Subject: Sweden, in Numerical Index of USCIB Papers, undated, RG-263, CIA Declassified Reference Materials, Box 241, Folder 3, Document No. CIA-RDP82S00527R000100230025-5, NA, CP. This document has since been removed from the holdings of the National Archives at College Park, Maryland.

⁹⁴Confidential interview. For an example of a Henning secret meeting in Stockholm in November 1955 with Maj. Gen. Ridgely Gaither, see Dept. of State (Cabot), Memo of Conversation, 27 Nov. 1955, RG-59, Decimal File 1955–1959, Box 3466, File: 758.5/11-2755, NA, CP.

⁹⁵Riste, Norwegian Intelligence Service, 90–91.

⁹⁶Memo, Acting Assistant Director Research and Reports to Deputy Director for Intelligence, Group on Soviet Arctic Intelligence: Progress Report, 20 June 1957, Tab C, 6–8, RG-263, CIA Reference Collection, Document No. CIA-RDP70T00666R 000100050008-2, NA, CP.

⁹⁷CIA/SC/RR 128, CIA, Office of Research and Reports, Merchant Shipping Operations of the Northern Sea Route 1954, 10 Jan. 1956, CIA Electronic FOIA Reading Room, Document No. 0000496241, <www.foia.cia.gov>; Memo, Chairman, Group on Soviet Arctic Intelligence to OAD/RR, Intelligence Production on the Soviet Arctic in the DD/I Area Through 1 July 1957, 15 Aug. 1957, RG-263, CIA Reference Collection, Document No. CIA-RDP70T00666R000100050006-4, NA, CP; Letter, Chief of Naval Operations (OP-922Y1) to Central Intelligence Agency, Letter of Commendation, 26 May 1959, RG-263, CIA Reference Collection, Document No. CIA-RDP71T00730R000300010006-3, NA, CP.

⁹⁸David R. Gray, Alert: Beyond the Inuit Lands: The Story of Canadian Forces Station Alert (Ottawa: Borealis Press 1997), 15–16.

⁹⁹N.C. Gerson, ‘Collaboration in SIGINT; Canada – U.S.’, NCVA Cryptolog (Spring 1999), 2.

¹⁰⁰Confidential interview with retired senior Canadian intelligence official.

¹⁰¹Berdal, The United States, Norway and the Cold War, 63.

¹⁰²Confidential interview.

¹⁰³CIA, Cost Reduction Program: FY 1966–FY 1967, 1 Sept. 1965, 9, RG-263, Entry 36, HRP 89-2/00443, Box 7, File 713: Cost Reduction Program, NA, CP; Riste, Norwegian Intelligence Service, 146–49; Rolf Tamnes, United States and the Cold War in the High North (Oslo: ad Notam forlag 1991), 121–22, 212; Dokument nr. 15 (1995–96), Rapport til Stortinget fra kommisjonen som ble nedsatt av Stortinget for å granske påstander om ulovig overvåking av norske borgere (Lund-rapporten), 28 March 1996, 451.

¹⁰⁴Confidential interview.

¹⁰⁵Tamnes, United States and the Cold War in the High North, 121.

¹⁰⁶NIE-11-2A-59, National Intelligence Estimate No. 11-2A-59, The Soviet Atomic Energy Program, 18 Aug. 1959, 36, CIA Electronic FOIA Reading Room, Document No. 0000843185, <http://www.foia.cia.gov>; NIE 11-2A-62, National Intelligence Estimate No. 11-2-61, The Soviet Atomic Energy Program, 16 May 1962, 11, CIA Electronic FOIA Reading Room, Document No. 0000843187, <www.foia.cia.gov>.

¹⁰⁷NIE 11-11-66, Impact of a Threshold Test Ban Treaty on Soviet Military Programs, May 25, 1966, p. 11, CIA Electronic FOIA Reading Room, Document No. 0000239460, <www.foia.cia.gov>.

¹⁰⁸Deployment Working Group of the Guided Missiles and Astronautics Intelligence Committee, Soviet Surface-to-Surface Missile Deployment, 1 Oct. 1962, Tab I-P-1, 18, RG-263, CIA Reference Collection, Document No. CIA-RDP78T04757A0003 00010003-3, NA, CP; Tab A, Utilization of Aerial Reconnaissance to Determine the Status of the Soviet ICBM Threat, 8 Sept. 1959, p. 8, RG-263, CIA Reference Collection, Document No. CIA-RDP92B01090R002600270002-9, NA, CP; TCS No. 5819-59, Tab C, USSR Targets for Highest Priority Collection, 1959, p. 1, RG-263, CIA Reference Collection, Document No. CIA-RDP92B01090R002600270004-7, NA, CP.

¹⁰⁹Tamnes, United States and the Cold War in the High North, 135.

¹¹⁰Steven J. Zaloga, Target America (Novato, CA: Presidio Press 1993), 150–51.

¹¹¹Confidential interview.

¹¹²TS Cont. No. 4-1536, IR-240-54, MiG-17 Disposition in the East Prussian Baltic Area, 16 June 1954, RG-341, Entry 267, Box 186, File: 4-1536, NA, CP.

¹¹³TS Cont. No. 4-2362, IR-352-54, Tu-16 Aircraft, 16 Sept. 1954, RG-341, Entry 267, Box 191, File: 4-2362, NA, CP.

¹¹⁴Christmas-Møller, Obersten og Kommandoren, 156–57.

¹¹⁵Hjørring Kommune, Teknisk Forvaltning, Lokalplan Nr. 199.10, Område til offentlige formål Skibsbylejren (militære anlæg), 2 Nov. 1998, 9.

¹¹⁶See the information on this that is contained on the following real estate website: <www.freja–ejendomme.dk/Salg7002–Dravedvej.htm>.

¹¹⁷Christmas-Moller, Obersten og Kommandoren, 88–99, 102–3.

¹¹⁸TS Cont. No. 4-4222, Air Attaché, Copenhagen, Denmark, Air Intelligence Information Report IR-149-54, Danish Attitude and Cooperation in Regard to USAFE Special Mission, ‘Fluorescent’, 19 Oct. 1954, RG-341, Entry 267, Box 191, File 4-4222, NA, CP.

¹¹⁹Confidential interview.

¹²⁰Confidential interview.

¹²¹Confidential interview.

¹²²Memo, Samford to Director of Plans, March 4, 1955, RG-341, Entry 214, Box 81, File: 5-531 - 5-1431, NA, CP. A survey by the USAF in late 1954 had identified both Norway and Sweden as being well-suited for siting a nuclear test detection facility on their soil, for which see Letter, Gibbs to Smith, 13 Dec. 1954, RG-59, Decimal File 1950–1954, Box 3191, File: 711.56357/12-1354, NA, CP.

¹²³TS Cont. No. 5-2480, Memo, Samford to Quarles, Detection Site in Sweden, 21 Oct. 1955, RG-341, Entry 214, Box 82, NA, CP.

¹²⁴Memo for the Files, 12 April 1957, RG-59, Entry 5170 Lot 81D402 Papers of Ambassador John M. Cabot, Box 1, Folder 2, NA, CP.

¹²⁵Letter, Cabot to Parsons, 20 Feb. 1956, RG-59, Entry 5170 Lot 81D402 Papers of Ambassador John M. Cabot, ibid.

¹²⁶Letter, Cabot to Elbrick, 9 Nov. 1955, RG-59, Entry 5170 Lot 81D402 Papers of Ambassador John M. Cabot, ibid.

¹²⁷Letter, Cabot to Horsey, 7 Dec. 1955, RG-59, Entry 5170 Lot 81D402 Papers of Ambassador John M. Cabot, ibid.

¹²⁸Memo, ATSD (SO) to Assistant Secretary of Defense (ISA), Installation of Radar in Europe, 12 Feb. 1957, RG-330, Office of Special Operations, OSD, DoD FOIA; Memo for the Record re: Weaver Discussions With Swedish on Guided Missiles, 19 Sept. 1957, RG-330, Office of Special Operations, OSD, DoD FOIA; Memo, Douglas to Secretary of Defense, Installation of AN/FPS-17 (XW-3) Radar on Shemya Island, 15 Jan. 1958, RG-340, Entry 1-E Top Secret General Correspondence 1956–1964, Box 10, File: 491-58 Radar Installations Overseas, NA, CP; DATSD (SO), Memo, Erskine to Deputy Secretary of Defense, Installation of AN/FPS-17 Radar on Shemya Island, 11 March 1958, 1, RG-330, Office of Special Operations, OSD, DoD FOIA.