National interests and the power of ‘language’: West German diplomacy and the conference on security and cooperation in Europe, 1972–1975

Abstract

Based on newly released documents from the German foreign ministry archives, this article investigates Bonn's goals, strategies and negotiation tactics at the Conference on Security and Development in Europe (CSCE). By focusing in particular on the multilateral preparatory talks in 1972/73 when the general Conference framework was negotiated and national and alliance positions were determined, it will be shown that (1) the Federal Republic of Germany was the key Western player at the CSCE, and (2) its policies were largely driven by national, Deutschlandpolitik interests – although on the surface the emphasis was always on a multilateral approach and a united Western (EPC/NATO) position. Furthermore, this article will reveal the significance of the ‘politics of language’ in West German diplomacy; and offer some wider reflections on the importance of language and its symbolism in international relations.

Key words:

• Germany
• CSCE
• national interests

Acknowledgements

The author would like to thank Professor David Stevenson and Dr Paul Readman for their most helpful comments on earlier drafts of this article, and Takeshi Yamamoto for sharing his insights into the CSCE in numerous discussions.

Notes

¹Wolfram F. Hanrieder, Germany, America Europe: Forty Years of German Foreign Policy (New Haven, CT/London: Yale UP 1989); Timothy Garton Ash, In Europe's Name: Germany and the Divided Continent (London: Random House 1993); Ludolf Herbst, Option für den Westen: Vom Marshallplan bis zum deutsch-französischen Vertrag, 2nd ed. (München: dtv 1996); Peter Bender, Die “neue Ostpolitik” und ihre Folgen: Vom Mauerbau bis zur Vereinigung, 4th ed. (München: dtv 1996).

²For Egon Bahr's [Permanent Secretary in the Bundeskanzleramt and FRG plenipotentiary for Berlin (1969–72), Minister for special tasks (1972–74)] ideas of Ostpolitik, European security and the policy of instrumentalisation, see AAPD[Akten zur Auswärtigen Politik (Auswärtiges Amt/Institut für Zeitgeschichte, München: Oldenbourg 2000)] 1969/II, Doc. 295, 18 Sept. 1969; Doc. 296, 21 Sept. 1969; Andreas Vogtmeier, Egon Bahr und die deutsche Frage: Zur Entwicklung der sozialdemokratischen Ost- und Deutschlandpolitik vom Kriegsende bis zur Vereinigung (Bonn: dietz 1996), 104–13; Gottfried Niedhart, ‘Revisionistische Elemente und die Initiierung friedlichen Wandels in der neuen Ostpolitik 1967–1974’, Geschichte und Gesellschaft 28/2 (2002), 233–366. On Bonn's policy of instrumentalisation and the growing interest in issues of substance, see AAPD 1970/III, Doc. 413, 1 Sept. 1970; AAPD 1971/II, Doc. 313, 17 Sept. 1971; Doc. 328, 30 Sept. 1971; AAPD 1971/III, Doc. 336, 6 Oct. 1971; AAPD 1972/I, Doc. 32, 15 Feb. 1972; Doc. 46, 3 March 1972; Doc. 59, 17 March 1972; Doc. 138, 18 May 1972; AAPD 1972/II, Doc. 162, 5 June 1972; Doc. 182, 26 June 1972; AAPD 1972/III, Doc. 353, 31 Oct. 1972. See also ZA [Politisches Archiv, Auswärtiges Amt, Berlin – Zwischenarchiv]: ZA 109304 KSZE – NATO, EG , Europäische Einigung, 1972, Rogers vor der NATO – by IIA3, 6 May 1972; ZA 109304, Sondersprechzettel – by IIA3, 29 May 1972; ZA 109304, Sprechzettel, IA7-83-00-2/2645I/72, 5 June 1972; Paul Frank, ‘Zielsetzungen der Bundesrepublik Deutschland im Rahmen europäischer Sicherheitsverhandlungen’, Europa-Archiv 5/1972, 153–60.

³On West Germany's CSCE aims and multilateral cooperation, see ZA 109304; ZA 109307 KSZE – Wirtschaft, 1972. See also Hans-Dietrich Genscher, Erinnerungen (Berlin: Siedler 1995), 230, 238.

⁴John Maresca, To Helsinki: The Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe, 1973–1975 (Durham, NC: Duke UP 1985); Vojtech Mastny, Helsinki, Human Rights, and European Security: Analysis and Documentation (Durham, NC: Duke UP 1986); Victor-Yves Ghebali, La Diplomatie de la Détente: la CSCE, d'Helsinki à Vienne, 1973–1989 (Brussels: E. Bruylant 1989).

⁵Peter Schlotter, Die KSZE im Ost-West-Konflikt: Wirkung einer internationalen Institution (Frankfurt a. M.: Campus 1999); Daniel Thomas, The Helsinki Effect (Princeton, NJ: Princeton UP 2001); See also Ljubivoje Acimovic, Problems of Security and Cooperation in Europe (Alphen aan den Rijn; Rockville, MD: Sijthoff & Noordhoff 1981); Kenneth Dyson, ‘The Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe: Europe before and after the Helsinki Final Act’, in Kenneth Dyson (ed.), European Détente: Case Studies of the Politics of East-West Relations (London: F. Pinter 1986).

⁶See for instance, Peter C. Speicher, ‘The Berlin Origins of Brandt's Ostpolitik, 1957–1966’ (PhD Cambridge 2000); Gerhard Kunze, Grenzerfahrungen (Berlin: Akademie-Verlag 1999); Wolfgang Schmidt, Kalter Krieg, Koexistenz und kleine Schritte: Willy Brandt und die Deutschlandpolitik 1948–1963 (Wiesbaden: VS Verlag 2001); Frank Fischer, “Im deutschen Interesse”: Die Ostpolitik der SPD von 1969 bis 1989 (Husum: Matthiesen 2001); Mathias Siekmeier, Restauration oder Reform? Die FDP in den sechziger Jahren: Deutschland- und Ostpolitik zwischen Wiedervereinigung und Entspannung (Freiburg: Janus 1998); Arne Hoffmann, The Emergence of Détente in Europe: Brandt, Kennedy and the Formation of Ostpolitik (London: Routledge 2007 forthcoming); M.E. Sarotte, Dealing With the Devil: East Germany, Détente, and Ostpolitik, 1969–1973 (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press 2001); Niedhart, ‘Revisionistische Elemente’; Garton Ash, In Europe's Name; Helga Haftendorn, Sicherheit und Entspannung: Zur Aussenpolitik der Bundesrepublik Deutschland, 1955–1982 (Baden-Baden: Nomos 1983); Vogtmeier, Bahr. On West Germany and EPC, Hartmut Mayer, ‘National foreign policy through multilateral means: The Federal Republic of Germany and European political cooperation, 1969–1986’ (DPhil Oxford 2001).

⁷Among the exceptions are, Jussi Hanhimäki, ‘“They Can Write it in Swahili”: Kissinger, the Soviets, and the Helsinki Accords, 1973–1975’, Journal of Transatlantic Studies 1/1 (2003); Peter Becker, Die frühe KSZE-Politik der Bundesrepublik Deutschland: Der aussenpolitische Entscheidungsprozess bis zur Unterzeichnung der Schlussakte von Helsinki (Münster; Hamburg: Lit Verlag 1992); Robert Spencer, Canada and the Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe (Toronto: Centre for International Studies, Univ. of Toronto 1984). Memoirs on the CSCE include Luigi Vittorio Ferraris, Report on a Negotiation: Helsinki-Geneva-Helsinki 1972–1975 (Alphen aan den Rijn/Geneva: Sijthoff/Institut Universitaire de Hautes Études Internationales 1979); Jacques Andréani, Le piège: Helsinki et la chute du communisme (Paris: Odile Jacob 2005); Peter Steglich and Günter Leuschner, KSZE – Fossil oder Hoffnung (Berlin: edition ost 1996); The Road to Helsinki: The Early Steps to the CSCE (Florence, 29–30 Sept. 2003) <www.isn.ethz.ch/php/conferences/Previous Events/2003_florence.htm>; ‘At the Roots of the European Security System: Thirty Years since the Helsinki Final Act' (Zurich, 8–10 Sept. 2005) <www.isn.ethz.ch/php/conferences/PreviousEvents/2005-CSCE.htm>.

⁸ DBPO, III, II[Documents on British Policies Overseas, Series III, Volume II: The Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe 1972–1975 (Norwich, UK: The Stationery Office 1997)].

⁹ AAPD 1972/I, Doc. 138, 18 May 1972.

¹⁰The area of Referat IIA3 was defined as Strukturfragen des Ostens according to the AA organigramme of 7/1970 [and headed by VLR I Dr Pommerening] before it changed to Sonderfragen der Ost-West Beziehungen under VLR I Frhr. v. Groll (organigrammes 9/1971 and 3/1972). By Oct. 1972 the code of the department was changed to 212 and its name to Fragen der allgemeinen Ost-West Beziehungen (u. a. Konferenz für Sicherheit und Zusammenarbeit in Europa).

¹¹ZA 109302 KSZE – Sprachen, 1972; ZA 109312, KSZE – Bezeichnung, Personal, Dienstreisen, 1972; ZA 111518 KSZE – Syrien, Senegal, Singapur, San Marino, Sprache, Spanien, Schweden, Schweiz, 1973–1975.

¹²Maresca, CSCE, 81.

¹³In the German context this meant the following: In 1960 every fourth household in West Germany had a television (TV) set, while in East Germany this applied to every sixth household. By the mid-1970s the respective figures had risen to c.90 per cent in the FRG, and 70 per cent in the GDR. This onset of the TV age, was supported not least by the emergence of colour TV and second channels during the late 1960s. Moreover, according to a US embassy study of 1960 on TV viewing habits in the East Zone, three quarters of GDR viewers were watching West German TV! See Axel Schild, ‘Zwei Staaten – eine Hörfunk- und Fernsehnation: Überlegungen zur Bedeutung der elektronischen Massenmedien in der Geschichte der Kommunikation zwischen der Bundesrepublik und der DDR’, in Arnd Bauerkämper, Martin Sabrow, Bernd Stöver (eds.), Doppelte Zeitgeschichte: Deutsch-deutsche Beziehungen, 1945–1990 (Bonn: Dietz 1998); Peter Hoff, ‘Organisation und Programmentwicklung des DDR-Fernsehens’, in Helmut Kreuzer and Christian W. Thomsen (eds.), Geschichte des Fernsehens in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland, Vol. 1 (München: W. Fink 1993–94), 245–88; Dieter Bracher, Wolfgang Jäger and Werner Link (eds.), Republik im Wandel, 1969–1974: Die Ära Brandt, Vol. 5/1 (Stuttgart: dva 1986), 294–300.

¹⁴ZA 109312, Bettini to Kastl, 10 March 1972.

¹⁵IIA1 –Aussenpolitische Fragen, die Berlin und Deutschland als Ganzes betreffen.

¹⁶ZA 109312, To Referat IIA3, IIA1 – 80.51 KSE, 23 March 1972.

¹⁷The AA studies noted that Burma, Ceylon, Indonesia, Iraq, Kuwait, Maledives, Somalia, Sudan, and Tanzania, listed the two Germanies under ‘G’ and in the order of FRG, GDR. Algeria, Yugoslavia, Syria, Central African Republic in turn used French (“A”) and the order RDA, RFA, while Finland and the United Arab Republic (VAR) – using French – listed West ahead of East Germany. It was further noted that in Romania and USSR (Russian language), the GDR came before the FRG. ZA 109312, Vermerk – by von Groll, 12 April 1972; ZA 109312, Vermerk – by von Groll, 2 April 1972.

¹⁸V1 –Allgemeines Völkerrecht.

¹⁹ZA 109312, Fleischhauer to Referat IIA3, 18 April 1972. The Hallstein Doctrine was an unofficial but widely used shorthand for West Germany's twenty-year effort to prevent international recognition of East Germany as a separate German state. In the 1950s and 1960s, the doctrine was central to cold war disputes over Germany's status and identity.

²⁰ZA 109312, Memo – by von Groll, 21 April 1972.

²¹ZA 109312, Letter by von Groll to Dg21, D2, 18 Oct. 1972; ZA 109312, Memo – by Hillger, 26 Oct. 1972.

²²ZA 109312, Memo – by Hillger, 26 Oct. 1972; ZA 109312, Repregerma Helsinki – by von Staden, 15 Nov. 1972; ZA 109312, Response to DB Nr. 493 – by Diesel, 20 Nov. 1972.

²³Finland was trapped by the German question, since diplomatic relations between Finland and the GDR/FRG did not exist – a situation it sought to change in the early 1970s. Indeed, East and West Germany only had trade missions in Helsinki. With view to the CSCE preparations being hosted by Finland, West German foreign minister Walter Scheel, as late as in May 1972, had threatened to reject Helsinki as the CSCE MPT location, if Finland remained on course to recognise the GDR; the latter outcome of course promoted by Moscow. Ironically, at the same time Scheel, for ‘Germany's’ sake, remained behind the scenes very keen on the Conference. Finland decided on 19 Sept. 1972 to recognise both Germanies at the same time; a policy which after the signing of the FRG-GDR Basic Treaty later that year could fully be implemented. See Seppo Hentilä, Kaksi Saksaa ja Suomi: Saksan-kysymys Suomen puolueettomuuspolitiikan haasteena (Helsinki: SKS, 2003). ZA 109307, Vermerk – by Diesel, 8 Dec. 1972.

²⁴ZA 109312, Repregerma Helsinki – by von Staden, 15 Nov. 1972.

²⁵ZA 109312, Response to DB Nr. 493 – by Diesel, 20 Nov. 1972. The following examples were laid out as further justification. West Germany listed under ‘F’/‘R’ in UN terminology bulletin: Unicef, UNDP, UNIDO, UNCTAD, UNHCR, ECE, ECOSOC; West Germany listed under ‘G’/‘A’: IBRD, IMF, IFC, IDA, ICAO, FAO, WMO, UPU, WHO, UNESCO, IAEA, OECD.

²⁶ZA 109312, NATOgerma to AA, Fernschreiben Nr. 1345, 22 Nov. 1972.

²⁷ZA 109312, Fernschreiben Helsinki-Bonn Nr. 514, 21 Nov. 1972.

²⁸ZA 109312, Vermerk – by Dg21, 21 Nov. 1972.

²⁹ZA 109312, Vermerk – by Dg21, 21 Nov. 1972.

³⁰ZA 109312, Pol. Abt. 3 to Minister, 21 Nov. 1972.

³¹ZA 109312, Fernschreiben Helsinki-Bonn Nr. 520, 22 Nov. 1972; Fernschreiben Helsinki-Bonn Nr. 564, 1 Dec. 1972. Note: Peter Becker who in his book implies that the final choice of French was part of West Germany's strategy all along is obviously wrong. See Becker, KSZE-Politik, 174 and cf. also Maresca, CSCE, 7. On the East German perspective, see Steglich and Leuschner, KSZE, 55–6.

³²ZA 109312, von Groll an Referate 210, 230, 500, 18 Dec. 1972; ZA 109312, Vollmar an Referat 212, 2 Jan. 1973; ZA 109312, Circular by StS of AA, 13 Dec. 1972.

³³ZA 111520 KSZE, USA, Vatikan, Zypern, 1973-75, Information über KSZE, 1 Feb. 1973. Note: Helmut Schmidt in his memoirs would later write about the ‘coincidental alphabetic seating order’, when this matter had played such a crucial role in West Germany's politics of language throughout 1972. See Helmut Schmidt, Menschen und Mächte (Berlin: Siedler 1987), 73.

³⁴ AAPD 1972/III, Doc. 383, 27 Nov. 1972.

³⁵Guido Brunner, ‘Das Ergebnis von Helsinki: Die Vorbereitungen für die Konferenz über Sicherheit und Zusammenarbeit in Europa’, in Hermann Volle and Wolfgang Wagner, KSZE–Konferenz über Sicherheit und Zusammenarbeit in Europa (Bonn: Verlag für Internationale Politik 1976), 54.

³⁶Steglich and Leuschner, KSZE, 26.

³⁷ZA 109292 KSZE – Aufzeichnungen, Deutsche Haltung, 1972, Abschluss der ersten Sitzungesperiode der MV … 212-84.10, 19 Dec. 1972. Cf. ZA 109292, Sprechzettel für den Herrn Bundesminister, 29 Nov. 1972. See also Götz von Groll, ‘The Helsinki Consultations’, Aussenpolitik 24/2 (1973), 123.

³⁸See ZA 109310 KSZE – Hauptkonferenz, Reise von Groll, Sub. Komitee, 1972, Konferenzvorbereitung, IIA3-84.10/5, 27 March 1972.

³⁹See an assessment made in 1975 on the position of the German language internationally, ZA 111518 Kurzfassung, 600-622.02, 20 May 1975.

⁴⁰Maresca, CSCE, 22.

⁴¹ZA 109292, Multilaterale Vorbereitung der KSE – by Diesel, IIA3-84.10, 17 Jan. 1972.

⁴²ZA 109302, D Pol Aufzeichnung, 3 March 1972.

⁴³ZA 109302, Memo – by DgIIA, 21 March 1972. See also DBPO, III, II, 47; Sarotte, Devil, 121–2.

⁴⁴ZA 109302, by Frank, IIA3-84.10/5’, 4 April 1972.

⁴⁵German was most notably used in the EC, European Council, Western European Union, Comecon, and Warsaw Pact. ZA 109302, Betr.: KSZE, IIA3-84.10/5 – unsigned doc, 12 May 1972; ZA 109302, von Groll to Referat IV1, 19 Sept. 1972. See also AAPD 1972/I, Doc. 133, 12 May 1972, fn.7.

⁴⁶ZA 109302, Memo – by DgIIA, 21 March 1972.

⁴⁷ZA 109302, Betr.: Deutsch als KSZE Sprache, signed on 25 Aug. 1972; ZA 109302, Betr.: KSZE, IIA3-84.10/5 – unsigned doc. 12 May 1972.

⁴⁸ZA 109302, by Frank, IIA3-84.10/5, 4 Apr. 1972; ZA 109302, von Groll to D Pol, IIA3-84.10/05, 12 May 1972; ZA 109302, von Groll to Referat IV1, 19 Sept. 1972. See also AAPD 1972/II, Doc. 159, 2 June 1972, fns 46, 47.

⁴⁹ZA 109302, Betr.: KSZE, IIA3-84.10/5 – unsigned doc, 12 May 1972.

⁵⁰ZA 109302, Hansen to Referat IIIA7, 3 May 1972; ZA 109302, Betr.: KSZE, IIA3-84.10/5 – unsigned doc., 12 May 1972.

⁵¹ZA 109302, Betr.: KSZE Vorbereitung – by Diesel, 25 May 1972; ZA 109302, von Staden to StS, 8 June 1972. Cf. ZA 109302, Memo – by von Groll, 20 July 1972.

⁵²ZA 109302, Memo – by Bazing, 22 Aug. 1972.

⁵³ZA 109302, von Groll to Referat IV, 19 Sept. 1972.

⁵⁴ZA 109302, Memo by Referat IV1, 82/52, 15 Sept. 1972.

⁵⁵ZA 109302, Memo – by Hillger, 22 Sept. 1972.

⁵⁶ZA 109292, Sprechzettel für den Herrn Bundesminister für die Kabinettsitzung am 29.11.1972. See also ZA 111518, Aufzeichnung – by Merten, 16 Sept. 1975.

⁵⁷ZA 109302, von Staden to D1, 4 Dec. 1972; ZA 109302, To D1, 105-ZA 5-86.00, 23 Nov. 1972.

⁵⁸ZA 111518, Aufzeichnung – by Merten, 16 Sept. 1975; ZA 111518, Bericht – Scheel, 14 Sept. 1975; ZA 111518, Dg21 to Staatssekretär 18 Nov. 1975.

⁵⁹ZA 111518, Aufzeichnung – by Merten, 16 Sept. 1975; ZA 111518, Bericht – Scheel, 14 Sept. 1975. See also Steglich and Leuschner, KSZE, 26; Becker, KSZE-Politik, 182; Götz von Groll, ‘The Foreign Ministers in Helsinki’, Aussenpolitik 24/3 (1973), 256.

⁶⁰Ibid.

⁶¹ZA 111518, Aufzeichnung – by Merten, 16 Sept. 1975.

⁶²Quote in Maresca, CSCE, 22. See also ZA 111518, Aufzeichnung – by Merten, 16 Sept. 1975.

⁶³ DBPO, III, II, 40.

⁶⁴ZA 109292, KSZE-Anlage 1 zur Kabinettsvorlage, März 1972, March 1972; ZA 109292, BmVG Fue S III 5 – by Steiff, 7 April 1972; ZA 109292, Konferenz für Sicherheit und Zusammenarbeit in Europa, II A 3, 7 June 1972; ZA 109292, Betr.: Multilaterale Vorbereitung der KSE – by Diesel, 17 Jan. 1972.

⁶⁵ZA 109310, Conference … – Freer Movement of People, Ideas and Information, German Del. 20-12-6/72/VS-NfD, 7 April 1972.

⁶⁶ZA 109312, Aufzeichnung – by Büro Staatssekretär, 2 Nov. 1972. ZA 111521 Multiple Gespräche, 1972–75 / Helsinki Konsultationen, 1973, Deutsche Delegation, Unterausschuss KSZE (72) 12 D – IIA3-84.10/3, 17 Mar. 1972. See also ZA 109307, Aufzeichung – by Pfeffer, 5 Oct. 1972.

⁶⁷ZA 111521, Zielsetzung der Bundesregierung für eine Europäische Sicherheitskonferenz – by IIA3, 10 May 1972.

⁶⁸ DBPO, III, II, 40.

⁶⁹ZA 111521, Zielsetzung … – by IIA3, 10 May 1972.

⁷⁰ZA 109292, Stichworte: Grundlininien der KSE Politik der Bundesregierung, (undated 1972); ZA 111521, Zielsetzung … – by IIA3, 10 May 1972. Heinrich Bechtold, ‘Berlin Agreement and Security Conference’, Aussenpolitik 23/1 (1972).

⁷¹ZA 111521, Zielsetzung … – by IIA3, 10 May 1972.

⁷²ZA 109292, Entwurf – Haltung der Bundesrepublik Deutschland zur KSZE, Sept. 1972.

⁷³ZA 109292, Konferenz für Sicherheit und Zusammenarbeit in Europa, 212 84.10, signed 22 Dec. 1972 – though undated; ZA 109292, Schwerpunktaufgaben des Referats IIA3 … – by Bazing, 4 Aug. 1972; ZA 111521, Zielsetzung … – by IIA3, 10 May 1972.

⁷⁴ DBPO, III, II, 80.

⁷⁵ZA 111521, Deutsche Delegation, Unterausschuss KSZE (72) 12 D – IIA3-84.10/3, 17 March 1972; DBPO, III, II, 56–60.

⁷⁶See Thomas, Helsinki, 48–9; AAPD 1972/II, Doc. 159, fn. 40. On the lack of US interest in (and strategy regarding) the CSCE, ZA 111520, Sachstand – by von Groll, 212-341.14/USA, 24 April 1973. See also Hanhimäki, ‘Kissinger’, 37–46. For an analysis of superpower linkage policy regarding MBFR-CSCE, see also Takeshi Yamamoto's unpublished conference paper (at European University Institute, Florence, 4–6 May 2006), ‘Uncontrollable Multilateral European Détente: Euro-Canadian Resistance to the US/Soviet Agreement 1972–73’ which he discussed with the author in April 2006.

⁷⁷ZA 109292, London-Bonn Fernschreiben Nr. 3091, 27 Nov. 1972.

⁷⁸ZA 109292, Konferenz für Sicherheit und Zusammenarbeit in Europa, II A3, 7 June 1972.

⁷⁹Ibid.

⁸⁰It is important to note that ‘human rights’ as a CSCE principle or the so-called human rights norm was first proposed to the EPC by the Germans in Jan. 1972, with the intention of seeing the practical aspects of the issue of ‘freer movement of peoples, ideas and information’ anchored in what would become the CSCE declaration of principles. The implementation of the ‘human rights’ principle at the CSCE became Community policy by the autumn. But both areas, ‘human rights’ and ‘freer movement/ human contacts’, caused significant disagreements on the Western side over wording and substance. Not all NATO states were comfortable with the EC's proposed ‘human rights principle’ nor with the West German careful step-by-step approach regarding human contacts. Regarding the first, it was felt by some non-EC states that the line between norms/principles regulating a state's treatment of individuals and those regulating inter-state relations was being blurred. Still, NATO endorsed the EC proposal in private session at the NATO summit in early Dec. 1972, while the public communiqué simply used the language of ‘freer movement of people, ideas and information’ rather than also adopting the terminology of a human rights principle. Regarding the second, especially the USA was keen on bolder diplomacy and bolder tactics vis-à-vis the USSR on ‘freer movement’, believing that what they saw as the FRG's more cautious approach would weaken the Alliance's bargaining position. Eventually by pointing to the particular importance ‘freer movement' held for intra-German affairs, Bonn, with its EPC partners' backing, was to win the argument during the MPT. Thomas, Helsinki, 52; AAPD 1972/III, Doc. 399, fns 18, 19, 8 Dec. 1972. On US-West German disagreements over questions related to ‘freer movement’ policy in the run up to the MPT CSCE, see AAPD 1971/III, Doc. 336; Doc. 412, 23 Nov. 1971; AAPD 1972/I, Doc. 52, 13 March 1972; Doc. 128, 11 May 1972, fn. 19; AAPD 1972/III, Doc. 378, 17 Nov. 1972. See also ZA 109304 as per fn. 2; ZA 111521, Deutsche Delegation, Unterausschuss KSZE (72) 12 D – IIA3-84.10/3, 17 Mar. 1972; ZA 109307, Diesel to von Staden, Frank, 18 Jan. 1972; ZA 109292, Schwerpunktaufgaben IIA3, 4 Aug.1972.

⁸¹ZA 111531, von Groll to D2, 1 Feb. 1973.

⁸² DBPO, III, II, 79, 83. See also DBPO, III, II, 90 and cf. 158.

⁸³ZA 109292, Stichworte – Grundlinien der KSZE-Politik der Bundesregierung, undated doc. from 1972. See also the very early document, ZA 109292, Konferenz für Sicherheit und Zusammenarbeit in Europa, IIA3-84.10/3, 10 Jan. 1972.

⁸⁴ZA 109292, IIA3, Sept. 1972; ZA 109292, KSZE, 212-84.10, signed 22 Dec. 1972 – though undated.

⁸⁵ZA 109292, KSZE, 212 84.10, signed 22 Dec. 1972 – though undated.

⁸⁶See DBPO, III, II, 106–8.

⁸⁷ZA 109292, KSZE, 212 84.10, signed 22 Dec. 1972 – though undated; ZA 111531, von Groll to Dg21, 23 Jan. 1973.

⁸⁸Hanhimäki, ‘Kissinger’, 46–54. Genscher, Erinnerungen, 223–46. Eventually ‘peaceful change’ was incorporated under principle 1 ‘sovereignty’. See for instance, ZA 111524 KSZE – COREU, 1974–30.4.1975, CPE, RM (74)7 P, 10 June 1974; ZA 111524, KSZE Prizipiendeklaration und ‘friedliche Grenzveränderungen’, 11 April 1975.

⁸⁹See ZA 111531, KSZE – Bericht des Vorsitzenden des PK an die Minister, 14 March 1973. Piles of papers on ‘peaceful change’ can be found in the numerous AA files on the ‘CSCE principles’, generally or on the ‘inviolability of borders principle’ specifically, that were produced during 1972–75.

⁹⁰ZA 109292, Einführende Bemerkungen zu unserem Arbeitspapier…, 21 Jan. 1972; ZA 109307, Ressortbesprechung…, 5 July 1972. See also Klaus Terfloth, ‘Foreign Policy of the Nine-nation Community’, Aussenpolitik 24/1 (1973).

⁹¹ZA 109292, KSZE, 212 84.10, signed 22 Dec. 1972 – though undated.

⁹²ZA 111540 KSZE – Korb III (Kultur), To D2, 211-340.52, 26 March 1973. See also fn. 80.

⁹³ DBPO, III, II, 138; Cf. Becker, KSZE-Politik, 172. See also 111520, Informationen über KSZE, 1 Feb. 1973.

⁹⁴ DBPO, III, II, 88.

⁹⁵ DBPO, III, II, 89. See also ZA 109292, Plurex 696 – von Groll, 22 Feb. 1973.

⁹⁶ZA 109292, Plurex 696 – von Groll, 22 Feb. 1973.

⁹⁷ZA 111531, von Groll to Dg21, 23 Jan. 1973; ZA 111531, von Groll to D2, 1 Feb. 1973; ZA 111531, Betr.: KSZE-Prinzipienerklärung – by von Staden, 2 Feb. 1973.

⁹⁸Regarding ‘self-determination’ Canada (with worries over separatism by Québec) for instance was interested in exactly the opposite to the FRG (with view to German unification), ZA 111531, Re: DB NATOgerma Nr. 60 – signed Diesel, 24 Jan. 1973; ZA 111531, Rom-Bonn Fernschreiben Nr. 161, 31 Jan. 1973; ZA 111531, Betr.: KSZE-Prinzipienerklärung – by von Staden, 2 Feb. 1973.

⁹⁹ DBPO, III, II, 96. See also ZA 111531, von Groll to Dg21, 23 Jan. 1973.

¹⁰⁰ZA 111531, von Groll to Ref 210, 212-341.31, 1 Feb. 1973.

¹⁰¹The 10 principles were: sovereign equality, non-use of force, inviolability of frontiers, territorial integrity, peaceful settlement of disputes, non-intervention in internal affairs, respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms, equality of rights of people and their right to self-determination, fulfilment in good faith of obligations under international law, and cooperation. See DBPO, III, II, 107, fn. 7.

¹⁰²ZA 111531, von Groll to D2, 5 Feb. 1973; ZA 111531, Memo – by Hillger, 13 Feb. 1973.

¹⁰³ZA 111529 KSZE–EC 1973-75 / Delegationsberichte, 1973, Bericht Nr. 65, 1 March 1973.

¹⁰⁴ DBPO, III, II, 106–7.

¹⁰⁵ZA 111529, Delegationsbericht Nr. 67, 5 March 1973.

¹⁰⁶ZA 111529, Delegationsbericht Nr. 72, 12 March 1973. Cf. Becker who without the documentary evidence had made some misleading comment on both the timing and reasoning of West Germany's change in position. Becker, KSZE, 176.

¹⁰⁷ZA 111529, Helsinki-Bonn Fernschreiben Nr. 243, 21 March 1973.

¹⁰⁸ DBPO, III, II, 106. On Germany's continuous considerations regarding ‘peaceful change’ and its ‘modus vivendi’ stand, see for example ZA 111531, Hillger to D2, 12 April 1973; ZA 111531, Diskussionsbeitrag, 4 June 1973.

¹⁰⁹ZA 111531, Re: DB Nr. 44 – van Well, 22 March 1973.

¹¹⁰ DBPO, III, II, 107.

¹¹¹Ibid. See also ZA 111529, Helsinki-Bonn Fernschreiben Nr. 277, 29 March 1973.

¹¹²ZA 111531, Abtl.2 212-341.31 VS-NfD + Anlage, 9 April 1973.

¹¹³ DBPO, III, II, 117; ZA 111529, Helsinki-Bonn Fernschreiben Nr. 305, 6 April 1973.

¹¹⁴ZA 111520, Industrielle Kooperation auf der KSZE, undated. Regarding interests expressed on basket II at Conference proper, see also Genscher, Erinnerungen, 245.

¹¹⁵ZA 111540, 211-340.52, 26 March 1973.

¹¹⁶ZA 111529, Helsinki-Bonn Fernschreiben Nr. 305, 6 April 1973.

¹¹⁷See ZA 109292; ZA 111503 KSZE – Bundestag, 1973–74; ZA 111504 KSZE – Oppositionsanfrage, Bundestag Auswärtiger Ausschuss, 1973-74; ZA 111505 KSZE – Bundesrat, Regierungserklärungen, Slow. Emigrantenkongress. Ostrecht, Interviews, Reden, 1973-74. See also Spencer, Canada, 156; Götz von Groll, ‘The CSCE Bundestag Debate’, Aussenpolitik 25/4 (1974), 375–84.

¹¹⁸On the AA's relations with the media, see for example in ZA 109293 KSZE – Regierungserklärung, Reden, Interviews, Spiegel Artikel, von Groll to D. Pol, 14 June 1972. On non-governmental activity, see ZA 109305 KSZE – WEU, ER, IPU, MBFR, UNO, UNO Satzung, 1972; ZA 109299, KSZE – Pol. Club, Pol. Komitee, Parlamentarier Konferenz, Pugwash, Presse, 1972; ZA 109309 Jugendsicherheitskonferenz, Jugendfragen etc., 1972; ZA 109311 Konferenzfolgen, Nichtamtl. Konferenzen, ECE, 1972.

¹¹⁹ZA 111540, Diesel to Ref 210, 16 March 1973; ZA 111540, Anlage zum Schreiben des AA vom 26. Oktober 1972 – Arnold an Ref 212/610.

¹²⁰ZA 111540, To Ref 212, 10 April 1973.

¹²¹ DBPO, III, II, 120–1.

¹²²ZA 111516 KSZE – Sowjetunion, 1973–74, Memo – by Diesel, 25 May 1973; ZA 112694 Besuch Breschnew II / Besuche und Reisen in die BRD, 1973-74, Memo – by Per Fischer , 21 May 1973; ZA 112694, Aufzeichnung of Gromyko-Scheel meeting of 18 May – Meyer-Landrut, undated doc.; AA StS to Wodak, 24 May 1973. Cf. ZA 112694, To Referat 212 – Betr: Delegationsgespräch zwischen Minister Scheel und Gromyko am 18. Mai, 22 May 1973; ZA 112694, To StS – by Meyer-Landrut, 28 May 1973; ZA 112694, Bewertung des Breschnew-Besuchs aus sich des AA, 213, signed 30 May 1973; ZA 112694, Ergebnisse des Breshnew-Besuchs in Bonn (Juni 1973). AAPD 1973/II, Doc. 150, 20 May 1973; Doc. 151, 20 May 1973. On German-Soviet backchannel policies, see also DBPO, III, II, 158.

¹²³Ferraris, Report, 40.

¹²⁴ DBPO, III, II, 150.

¹²⁵See ZA 109310, Vermerk – by Bazing, IIA3-84.10/5, 4 Aug. 1972.

¹²⁶ZA 111529, Helsinki-Bonn Fernschreiben Nr. 305, 6 April 1973; ZA 111520, Sachstand – by von Groll, 212-341.14/USA, 24 April 1973.

¹²⁷ZA 111516, Vermerk – by Diesel, 25 May 1973. See also AAPD 1973/II, Doc. 146, 18 May 1973; Doc. 148, 19 May 1973; Doc. 149, 20 May 1973; Doc. 152, 22 May 1973. See also ZA 109292, KSZE – IIA3, 27 June 1972.

¹²⁸ DBPO, III, II, 150, 159; Spencer, Canada, 92–6. Cf. AAPD 1973/II, Doc. 195, 16 June 1973; AAPD 1972/II, Doc. 279, 18 Sept. 1972.

¹²⁹The ‘Joint Communiqué following discussions with General Secretary Brezhnev, June 25, 1973’ can be found on <www.ena.lu/mce.cfm>.

¹³⁰ DBPO, III, II, 121.

¹³¹ DBPO, III, II, 115, 136–46.

¹³² DBPO, III, II, 140. See also DBPO, III, II, 138.

¹³³Volle and Wagner, KSZE, 167–72; DBPO, III, II, 159, 164–8.

¹³⁴Quote in von Groll, ‘The Foreign Ministers’, 267.

¹³⁵Volle and Wagner, KSZE, 181–7. See also von Groll, ‘The Foreign Ministers’, 255–74.

¹³⁶ DBPO, III, II, 158.

¹³⁷There are tens of CSCE files for 1972–75 in the AA archive (specifically the Zwischenarchiv, ZA). These are listed in the Findbuch under B[estand] 28, ZA + 6-digit file numbers.

¹³⁸ DBPO, III, II, 137.

¹³⁹ZA 111659 KSZE – Deutsche Haltung, … , 1975, Abt. 2 to Minister – Betr.: Stand der KSZE, 27 June 1975.