Lethal Genes: The Urban Military Imperative and Western Strategy in the Early Twenty-First Century

Abstract

This article examines the way in which urban areas have emerged to become one of the most common environments for armed conflict in the early twenty-first century. The essay argues that, while military professionals have sought to improve their understanding of urban military operations in an era of global demographic movement from landscape to cityscape, strategic theory lags behind operational practice. Western strategy currently lacks an effective urban lens with policy-relevant analysis neglected within the strategic studies community. The article seeks to identify how an urban strategic focus can be developed in the new millennium. To this end, and in order to provide a context for detailed contemporary analysis, the essay examines the historical nexus between war, strategy and the city; assesses continuity and change in the characteristics of modern urban military operations; and surveys the professional military debate on the meaning of urban operations. The essay argues that the urban military imperative must become part of the intellectual repertoire of Western strategic studies in the new millennium. Relevant knowledge from interdisciplinary studies of the modern, global megacity must be translated into applied strategic knowledge. Increasingly, Western strategists must be prepared to conceive of cities in the developing world as sites of armed conflict and to rethink the traditional geography of war, society and governance.

Key Words:

• Urban Military Operations
• Cities and Strategy
• Strategic Studies

Notes

¹See Thomas G. Mahnken, ‘Modern War’, in Patrick M. Cronin (ed.), The Impenetrable Fog of War: Reflections on Modern Warfare and Strategic Surprise (Westport, CT: Praeger International Security 2008), 15–24 and Michael Evans, ‘From Kadesh to Kandahar: Military Theory and the Future of War’, Naval War College Review 16/3 (Summer 2003), 132–50.

²Michael Evans, City Without Joy: Urban Military Operations into the 21st Century, Australian Defence College, Occasional Paper No. 2 (Canberra, ACT: Department of Defence 2007), available at <www.defence.gov.au/adc/hqadc_occasional.htm>.

³Paul Virilio, City of Panic, English ed. translated by Julie Rose (Oxford: Berg 2005); Robert Neuwirth, Shadow Cities: A Billion Squatters, A New Urban World (London: Routledge 2005); Stephen Graham (ed.), Cities, War and Terrorism, Towards an Urban Geopolitics (Oxford: Blackwell 2004); Thomas Sieverts, Cities without Cities: An Interpretation of the Zwischenstadt (London: Spot Press 2003).

⁴See for example the lack of an urban focus in such introductory texts as John Baylis, James Wirtz, Colin S. Gray and Eliot Cohen (eds.), Strategy in the Contemporary World: An Introduction to Strategic Studies, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Oxford UP 2005) and Colin S. Gray, War, Peace and International Relations: An Introduction to Strategic History (London: Routledge 2007).

⁵Alice Hills, Future War in Cities: Rethinking a Liberal Dilemma (London: Frank Cass 2004).

⁶The best overview of the subject is G.J. Ashworth, War and the City (London: Routledge 1991).

⁷This definition is drawn from North Atlantic Research and Technology Organisation Analysis and Simulation Panel Study Group, SAS-030, ‘The Future of Urban Warfare: NATO's View’, Military Technology, 3 (2008), 36.

⁸Ashworth, War and the City, 201.

⁹Col. John Collins, Military Geography for Professionals and the Public (Washington DC: National Defense UP 1998), 195.

¹⁰Auguste Blanqui, ‘A Blueprint for Insurrection’[1869] and James Connolly, ‘On Street Fighting’[24 July 1915], in Walter Laqueur (ed.), The Guerrilla Reader: An Anthology (London: Wildwood House 1978), 153–8 and 169–71. For Cluséret's writings on urban warfare see Gen. Paul Gustave Cluséret, ‘Street Fighting’, JRUSI 117/1 (March 1972), 57–60. Blanqui and Cluséret were Paris Commune leaders, Connolly led the Dublin Easter Rising of 1916.

¹¹Maréchal Bugeaud, La guerre des rues et des maisons, Manuscrit inédite et présenté par Maité Boussy, Jean-Paul Rocher, Éditeur (Paris 1997).

¹²Michael Dewar, War in the Streets: The Story of Urban Combat from Calais to Khafji (Newton Abbot, UK: David & Charles 1992), 181.

¹⁴Dewar, War in the Streets, 88.

¹³Evans, City Without Joy: Urban Military Operations into the 21st Century, 3.

¹⁵Robert Elliot Urquhart, Arnhem (London: Cassell 1958), 200.

¹⁶Quoted by Anthony Read and David Fisher, The Fall of Berlin (New York: Norton 1993), 386–7.

¹⁷Richard Connaughton, John Pimlott and Duncan Anderson, The Battle for Manila (Manila: Platypus Publishing 1995), 177–8.

¹⁸Lt. Col. G. A. Lofaro, ‘Arnhem: Airborne Warfare in the City’, in Col. John Antal and Maj. Bradley Gericke (ed.), City Fights: Selected Histories of Urban Combat from World War II to Vietnam (New York: Ballantine Books 2003), 124–53.

¹⁹Dewar, War in the Streets, 18–24.

²⁰Ibid., 86–7; Anthony Beevor, Stalingrad (London: Penguin Books 1999), 149–50.

²¹Beevor, Stalingrad, 148–9.

²²Anthony Beevor, Berlin: The Downfall 1945 (London: Penguin Books 2002), 318.

²³Connaughton, Pimlott and Anderson, The Battle for Manila, 185.

²⁴Ashworth, War and the City, 129–31.

²⁵Joanna K.M. Hanson, The Civilian Population and the Warsaw Uprising of 1944 (New York: Cambridge UP 1982), 85. The city's ordeal lasted 63 days.

²⁶Collins, Military Geography for Professionals and the Public, 200; Ashworth, War and the City, 93.

²⁷Ibid., 121.

²⁸S.J. Lewis, ‘The Battle of Stalingrad’, in William G. Robertson and Lawrence A. Yates (eds.), Block by Block: The Challenges of Urban Operations (Ft Leavenworth, KA: US Command and General Staff College 2003), 52; Tony Le Tissier, Race for the Reichstag: The 1945 Battle for Berlin (London/Portland, OR: Frank Cass 1999), 195.

²⁹Ashworth, War and the City, 124–5

³⁰Ibid., 121.

³¹See Gerhard L. Weinberg, ‘Stalingrad and Berlin: Fighting in Urban Terrain’, in Michael C. Desch (ed.), Soldiers in Cities: Military Operations in Urban Terrain (Carlisle, PA: Strategic Studies Institute, US Army War College 2001), 17–18.

³²Jonathan House, Combined Arms Warfare in the Twentieth Century (Lawrence: UP of Kansas 2001), 181–2.

³³Dewar, War in the Streets, 24–37; Weinberg, ‘Stalingrad and Berlin: Fighting in Urban Terrain’, 24–33.

³⁴Mark J. Reardon, ‘Aschaffenburg, 1945: Cassino on the Main River’, in Antal and Gericke, City Fights: Selected Histories of Urban Combat from World War II to Vietnam, 196–229.

³⁵See for example US Dept. of the Army, Military Operations on Urbanized Terrain, Field Manual 90-10, (Washington DC: US Govt Printing Office 1979).

³⁶Collins, Military Geography for Professionals and the Public, 201.

³⁷Evans, City Without Joy: Urban Military Operations into the 21st Century, 12–13.

³⁸Walter Laqueur, Guerrilla: A Historical and Critical Study (London: Weidenfeld 1977), 343–52; James Kohl and John Litt, Urban Guerrilla Warfare in Latin America (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press 1974), 87–135. For a recent study see, Anthony James Joes, Urban Guerrilla Warfare (Lexington: UP of Kentucky 2007).

³⁹See James J. Wirtz, ‘The Battles of Saigon and Hue’, in Desch, Soldiers in Cities: Military Operations on Urban Terrain, 29–56 and Lt. Col. Robert W. Lamont, ‘A Tale of Two Cities – Hue and Khorramsahr’, Marine Corps Gazette 83/4 (April 1999), 22–4.

⁴⁰US Army, Ad Hoc Group on Military Operations in Built-Up Areas (MOBA), Final Report (Washington DC: Army Science Board 1978), 75; John J. Mahan, ‘MOUT: The Quiet Imperative’, Military Review 84/7 (July 1984), 44–6.

⁴¹See John L. Romjue, From Active Defense to AirLand Battle: The Development of Army Doctrine, 1973–1982 (Ft Monroe, VA: US Army Doctrine and Training Command June 1984) and The Army Of Excellence: The Development of the 1990s Army (Ft Monroe, VA: US Army Training and Doctrine Command 1993).

⁴²For a useful summary of RMA thinking in the 1990s, see H.R. McMaster [Col., US Army], ‘Thoughts on the Character of Future Conflict’, in Patrick M. Cronin (ed.), The Impenetrable Fog of War: Reflections on Modern Warfare and Strategic Surprise (Westport, CT: Praeger International Security 2008), 98–105.

⁴³See especially, Russell W. Glenn, Combat in Hell; A Consideration of Constrained Urban Warfare, (Santa Monica, CA: RAND 1996) and Russell W. Glenn, Marching Under Darkening Skies: The American Military and the Impending Urban Operations Threat (Santa Monica, CA: RAND Arroyo Center 1998); Sean J. A. Edwards, Mars Unmasked: The Changing Face of Urban Operations (Santa Monica, CA: RAND Arroyo Center 2000).

⁴⁴United Nations, The State of World Population2007: Unleashing the Potential of Urban Growth (New York: UN Population Fund July 2007) and Population Reference Bureau, ‘World Population Highlights: Key Findings from PRB's 2007 World Population Data Sheet’, Population Bulletin: A Publication of the Population Reference Bureau 62/3 (Sept. 2007), 10–11.

⁴⁵These statistics are taken from United Nations, World Urbanization Prospects (New York: UN Population Division/ Dept. of Economic and Social Affairs 1998) and idem, The World at Six Billion (ibid. 1999); Jack F. Williams and Donald J. Zeigler, Cities of the World: World Regional Urban Development, (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield 2002), Ch. 1; United Nations, Urban and Rural Areas (New York: UN Dept. of Economic and Social Affairs 2005), available at <www.un.org/bcpr/populations/wup2005urban_rural.httm>; and Population Reference Bureau, ‘World Population Highlights: Key Findings from PRB's 2007 World Population Data Sheet’, 10.

⁴⁶See Population Reference Bureau, ‘World Population Highlights: Key Findings from PRB's 2007 World Population Data Sheet’, 10.

⁴⁷Roy Woodbridge, The Next World War: Tribes, Cities, Nations and Ecological Decline (Toronto: Univ. of Toronto Press 2004), 78.

⁴⁸See for example Saskia Sassen, ‘The Urban Complex in a World Economy’, International Social Science Journal 56/1 (1994), 43–62; Jane Schneider and Ida Susser (eds.), Wounded Cities: Destruction and Reconstruction in a Globalized World (Oxford: Berg 2003); Joel Kotkin, Cities: A Global History (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson 2005), Part 6; and Neil Brenner and Roger Keil (eds.), The Global Cities Reader (New York: Routledge 2006).

⁴⁹Graduate Institute of International Studies, Geneva, Small Arms Survey: Guns and the City (Cambridge: Cambridge UP 2007).

⁵⁰For the demographic crisis in the West see Marl L. Haas, ‘A Geriatric Peace? The Future of US Power in a World of Aging Populations’, International Security 32/1 (Summer 2007), 112–47.

⁵¹See Rod Thornton, Asymmetric Warfare: Threat and Response in Twenty-First Century Warfare (Cambridge: Polity Press 2007) and Robert Warren, ‘City Streets – The War Zones of Globalization: Democracy and Military Operations on Urban Terrain in the Early 21st Century’ in Graham, Cities, War and Terrorism, 214–30.

⁵²Graham, ‘Introduction’, in idem, Cities, War and Terrorism, 4.

⁵³Richard J. Norton, ‘Feral Cities’, Naval War College Review 66/4 (Autumn 2003), 97–106.

⁵⁴Alice Hills, Future War in Cities: Rethinking a Liberal Dilemma (London: Frank Cass/Routledge 2004), 225.

⁵⁵See Paul Virilio, ‘Military Space’ and ‘The Strategy of the Beyond’ in James Der Derian (ed.), The Virilio Reader (Oxford: Blackwell 1998), Chs 2 and 6.

⁵⁶Virilio, City of Panic, 13, 70–6.

⁵⁷Ralph Peters, ‘Our Soldiers, Their Cities’, Parameters: US Army War College Quarterly 36/1 (Spring 1996), 43

⁵⁸For Krulak's views see Evans, ‘From Kadesh to Kandahar’, 132–50. For an analysis of the US Marine Corps' approach at the end of the twentieth century see the articles in its special ‘Focus on Urban Combat’, especially the essay by Daryl Press, ‘Urban Warfare: Options, Problems, and the Future’, Marine Corps Gazette 83/4 (April 1999), 14–33.

⁵⁹Roger J. Spiller, Sharp Corners: Urban Operations at Century's End (Ft Leavenworth, KS: Combat Studies Institute, US Command and General Staff College 1999), 21.

⁶⁰Gen. Gordon A. Sullivan, ‘Preface’, in Desch, Soldiers in Cities, vii.

⁶¹Maj. Gen. (ret.) Robert H. Scales Jr, ‘The Indirect Approach: How US Military Forces Can Avoid the Pitfalls of Future Urban Warfare’, in idem, Future Warfare (Carlisle Barracks, PA: US Army War College 1999), 177–83.

⁶²Maj. Gen. (ret.) Robert H. Scales Jr, Yellow Smoke: The Future of Land Warfare for America's Military (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield 2003), 183.

⁶³William G. Rosenau, ‘“Every Room Is a New Battle”: The Lessons of Modern Urban Warfare’, Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 20/4 (1997), 379–81; Anatol Lieven, ‘Lessons of the War in Chechnya, 1994–96’, in Desch, Soldiers in Cities, 57–74; David Eshel, ‘The Battle of Jenin’, Jane's Intelligence Review 13/7 (July 2002), 20–4.

⁶⁴Dept. of the Navy, Military Operations on Urbanized Terrain, Marine Corps Warfighting Publication 3-35.3 (Washington DC: US Government Printing Office 1998); Dept. of the Army, Combined Arms Operations in Urban Terrain, Field Manual 3-06.11 (Washington DC: US Government Printing Office Feb. 2002) and Urban Operations, Field Manual 3-06 (Washington DC: US Government Printing Office June 2003).

⁶⁵Joint Chiefs of Staff, Joint Publication 3-06, Doctrine for Joint Urban Operations (Washington DC: The Joint Staff 16 Sept. 2002), 1-1, II-8.

⁶⁶North Atlantic Treaty Organisation Research and Technology Organisation, Report by the RTO Study Group into Urban Operations in the year 2020 for the NATO Research and Technology Organisation, (Brussels: NATO 24 May 2002), 3.

⁶⁷See the summary of North Atlantic Research and Technology Organisation Analysis and Simulation Panel Study Group, SAS-030,‘The Future of Urban Warfare: NATO's View’, in Military Technology, 3 (2008), 36–46.

⁶⁸For a useful introduction see Ahmed S. Hashim, Insurgency and Counter-Insurgency in Iraq (London: Hurst 2006).

⁶⁹Lt. Gen. John F. Sattler and Lt. Col. Daniel H. Wilson, ‘Operation Al Fajr: The Battle of Fallujah – Part II’, Marine Corps Gazette 89/7 (July 2005), 12–24.

⁷⁰Bing West, No True Glory: A Frontline Account of the Battle for Fallujah (New York: Bantam Books 2005) and David Bellavia with John Bruning, House to House: An Epic Memoir of War (London: Simon & Schuster 2007).

⁷²Ibid., 107.

⁷¹Bellavia, House to House, 56.

⁷³Ibid., 157. TOW stands for Tube launched, optically tracked, wire guided.

⁷⁵Bellavia, House to House, 132.

⁷⁴See Evans, City Without Joy, 17–19.

⁷⁶See Alice Hills, ‘Hearts and Minds or Search and Destroy? Controlling Civilians in Urban Operations’, Small Wars and Insurgencies 13/1 (Spring 2002), 1–24; Maj. Gen. Peter W. Chiarelli and Maj. Patrick R. Michaelis, ‘Winning the Peace: The Requirement for Full-Spectrum Operations’, Military Review, vol. LXXXV, no. 4 (August 2005), 13–26 and Maj. Gen. John R. S. Batiste and Lt. Col. Paul R. Daniels, ‘The Fight for Samarra: Full-Spectrum Operations in Modern Warfare’, Military Review 85/3 (May–June 2005), 4–17.

⁸⁰Ibid., 58.

⁷⁷Russell Glenn, ‘Joint Urban Operations: Observations and Insights from Iraq and Afghanistan’. Presentation to the Urban Warfare Asia Pacific Conference, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia, 16 Nov. 2005. Notes taken by author.

⁷⁸Lt. Col. Robert R. Leonhard, ‘Urban Warfare in the Information Age’, Army (April 2003), 40–4.

⁷⁹Georges-Henri Bricet des Vallons, ‘Strategic Globalisation and Urban Warfare’, Defénse Nationale et Sécurité Collective (March 2007), 52–60.

⁸¹Col. Robert C. Owen, ‘Urban Warfare in the Future: Balancing Our Approach’, British Army Review 128 (Winter 2001–02), 25–32.

⁸²Ibid., 29–30.

⁸³Ibid., 29.

⁸⁴See Evans, ‘From Kadesh to Kandahar: Military Theory and the Future of War’, 132–50.

⁸⁵Evans, City Without Joy, 21–2.

⁸⁶Hills, Future War in Cities, 26.

⁸⁷Hills, ‘Continuity and Discontinuity: The Grammar of Urban Military Operations’, in Graham, Cities, War and Terrorism, 236.

⁸⁸North Atlantic Research and Technology Analysis and Simulation Panel Study Group, SAS-030, ‘The Future of Urban Warfare: NATO's View’, 39.

⁸⁹See Ian Kemp, ‘Urban Warfare’, Complete Guide by Armada International (Zurich) 32/4 (Aug.–Sept. 2008), 1–24.

⁹⁰Ibid., 21.

⁹¹Ibid., 19–22 and Kendall D. Gott, Breaking the Mold: Tanks in the Cities (Ft Leavenworth, KS: Combat Studies Institute Press 2006), 114.

⁹²Kemp, ‘Urban Warfare’, 6–12.

⁹³Lt. Col. Raymond Smith, ‘Using Non-Lethal Weapons (NLW) in Urban Environments’, Presentation to the Urban Warfare Asia-Pacific Conference, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia, 15 Nov. 2005. Notes taken by author.

⁹⁴North Atlantic Research and Technology Analysis and Simulation Panel Study Group, SAS-030, ‘The Future of Urban Warfare: NATO's View’, 37.

⁹⁵Ibid., 36.

⁹⁶Stephen Biddle, Military Power: Explaining Victory and Defeat in Modern Battle (Princeton, NJ: Princeton UP 2004), 3; Hills, ‘Continuity and Discontinuity: The Grammar of Urban Military Operations’, 244.

⁹⁷Scales, ‘The Indirect Approach: How US Military Forces Can Avoid the Pitfalls of Future Urban Warfare’, in idem, Future Warfare, 177–8.

⁹⁸Ibid., 183.

⁹⁹Scales, Yellow Smoke, 118–20.

¹⁰⁰Maj. Gen. (ret.) Robert M. Scales Jr, ‘Urban Warfare: A Soldier's View’, Military Review 85/1 (Jan.–Feb. 2005), 9–18.

¹⁰¹Lt. Gen. Paul van Riper, ‘A Concept for Future Military Operations on Urban Terrain’, Marine Corps Gazette 81/10 (Oct. 1997), special insert, A1-A6.

¹⁰²Owen, ‘Urban Warfare in the Future’, 29–30.

¹⁰³North Atlantic Research and Technology Analysis and Simulation Panel Study Group, SAS-030, ‘The Future of Urban Warfare: NATO's View’, 39–40.

¹⁰⁴Ibid., 41–5.

¹⁰⁷North Atlantic Research and Technology Analysis and Simulation Panel Study Group, SAS-030, ‘The Future of Urban Warfare: NATO's View’, 37.

¹⁰⁵Frank G. Hoffman, ‘The Need for Neoclassical Counterinsurgency Theory’, in Patrick M. Cronin, ed, The Impenetrable Fog of War: Reflections on Modern Warfare and Strategic Surprise, (Westport, CT: Praeger Security International 2008) 120.

¹⁰⁶Cited in Kemp, ‘Urban Warfare’, 1.

¹⁰⁸Bellavia, House to House, 181.

¹⁰⁹Jennifer Morrison Taw and Bruce Hoffman, ‘The Urbanisation of Insurgency: The Potential Challenge to US Army Operations’, Small Wars and Insurgencies 6/1 (Spring 1995), 68–87; Max G. Manwaring, Street Gangs and the New Urban Insurgency (Carlisle, PA: Strategic Studies Institute, US Army War College March 2005).

¹¹⁰Beatrice Heuser, ‘The Cultural Revolution in Counter-Insurgency’, The Journal of Strategic Studies 30/1 (Feb. 2007), 153–71.

¹¹¹David J. Kilcullen, ‘Countering Global Insurgency’, The Journal of Strategic Studies 28/4 (Aug. 2005), 597–617; Robert M. Cassidy, ‘Feeding Bread to the Luddites: The Radical Fundamentalist Islamic Revolution in Guerrilla Warfare’, Small Wars and Insurgencies 16/3 (Dec. 2005), 334–59; Frank G. Hoffman, ‘Complex Irregular Warfare: The Next Revolution in Military Affairs’, Orbis: a Journal of World Affairs 50/3 (Summer 2006), 395–411.

¹¹²Hoffman, ‘The Need for Neoclassical Counterinsurgency Theory’, 125. Emphasis in original.

¹¹³Collins, Military Geography for Professionals and the Public, 204.

¹¹⁴For example, historical case studies are the predominant themes in Desch, Soldiers in Cities: Military Operations on Urban Terrain and Robertson and Yates, Block by Block: The Challenges of Urban Operations published in 2001 and 2003 respectively.

¹¹⁵Richard K. Betts, ‘Should Strategic Studies Survive?’, World Politics 50 (Oct. 1997), 22–6; Brian Holden Reid, Studies in British Military Thought: Debates with Fuller and Liddell Hart (Lincoln: Univ. of Nebraska Press 1998), Ch.1; Biddle, Military Power: Explaining Victory and Defeat in Modern Battle, 190–208.

¹¹⁶Holden Reid, Studies in British Military Thought, 12.

¹¹⁷John M. Collins, Military Strategy: Principles, Practices and Historical Perspectives (Washington DC: Brassey's 2002). To be fair, Collins views urbanisation as part of cultural geography and covers aspects of urban combat in his Military Geography for Professionals and the Public, Ch.10; J. Boone Bartholomees Jr, US War College Guide to National Security Issues, Vol.1: Theory of War and Strategy and Vol.2: National Security Policy and Strategy (Carlisle, PA: Strategic Studies Institute, US Army War College June 2008).

¹¹⁸Graduate Institute of International Studies, Geneva, Small Arms Survey 2007, 188.

¹¹⁹[Gen. Sir] Rupert Smith, The Utilty of Force: The Art of War in the Modern World (London: Allen Lane 2005), Part 3.

¹²⁰Evans, City Without Joy, 28–30.

¹²¹Graduate Institute of International Studies, Geneva, Small Arms Survey 2007, 196–7.

¹²²Hills, Future War in Cities, 246.

¹²³Christopher Paul, et al., ‘Identifying Urban Flashpoints: A Delphi-Derived Model for Scoring Cities’Vulnerability to Large-Scale Unrest’, Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 31/11 (Nov. 2008), 1044.

¹²⁴Mike Davis, Planet of Slums (London: Verso 2006), 5–9.

¹²⁵Graduate Institute of International Studies, Geneva, Small Arms Survey 2007, 161–88.

¹²⁶See Neuwirth, Shadow Cities: A Billion Squatters, A New Urban World and Sieverts, Cities without Cities: An Interpretation of the Zwischenstadt, passim.

¹²⁷Graduate Institute of International Studies, Geneva, Small Arms Survey 2007, 178–88.

¹²⁸Manwaring, Street Gangs, v–vi.

¹²⁹Graduate Institute of International Studies, Geneva, Small Arms Survey 2007, 178–88.

¹³⁰Lewis Mumford, The City in History: Its Origins, Its Transformation and Its Prospects (London: Secker & Warburg 1961), 572–3.

¹³¹Philip Bobbitt, Terror and Consent: The Wars for the Twenty-First Century (London: Allen Lane 2008), 525–6.

¹³²Henry E. Eccles, Military Concepts and Philosophy (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers UP 1965), 27.