Relationship between spatio-temporal characteristics of leaf-fall phenology and seasonal variations in near surface- and satellite-observed vegetation indices in a cool-temperate deciduous broad-leaved forest in Japan

Abstract

We examined the relationship between the spatio-temporal distribution of leaf litter for each species and the seasonal patterns of in situ and satellite-observed daily vegetation indices in a cool-temperate deciduous broad-leaved forest. The timing and distribution of leaf-fall revealed spatio-temporal relationships with species and topography. Values of the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), enhanced vegetation index (EVI), and green–red vegetation index (GRVI), measured both in situ and by satellite, and those of the in situ-measured leaf area index (LAI), rapidly declined at the peak of leaf-fall. At the late stage of leaf-fall, in situ-measured values of NDVI, EVI, and LAI declined but those of GRVI changed from decreasing to increasing. The peak timing of leaf-fall, when 50–73% of the leaf litter had fallen, corresponds to LAI = 1.80–0.81, NDVI = 0.61–0.54, EVI = 0.29–0.25, and GRVI = 0.01 ∼ ‒0.07. Although the distribution of leaf litter among species displayed spatial characteristics at the peak of leaf-fall, spatial heterogeneity of amount of leaf litter at the peak timing of leaf-fall was less than that at the beginning and end. These facts suggest that the criterion for determining the timing of leaf-fall from vegetation indices should be a value corresponding to the peak of leaf-fall rather than its end. In a high-biodiversity forest, such as this study forest, the effect of spatial heterogeneity on the timing and patterns of leaf-fall on vegetation indices can be reduced by observing only the seasonal variation in colour on the canopy surface by using GRVI, which consists of visible reflectance bands, rather than that of both leaf area and colour of the canopy surface by using NDVI and EVI, which consist of visible and near-infrared reflectance bands.

Acknowledgements

We thank all members of the Takayama community for their assistance in the field, particularly their organizer, Mr Y. Miyamoto. We also thank all members of the Phenological Eyes Network for their cooperation. We thank the editor and the two anonymous reviewers for their kind and constructive comments.

Funding

This study was supported by the Global Environment Research Fund (S-1; Integrated Study for Terrestrial Carbon Management of Asia in the 21st Century Based on Scientific Advancement) of the Ministry of Environment of Japan; the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) 21st Century COE Programme (Satellite Ecology, Gifu University); the JSPS/NRF/NSFC A3 Foresight Programme; and a Global Change Observation Mission (GCOM; PI#102) of JAXA. S. Nagai is supported by the Environment Research and Technology Development Fund (S-9) of the Ministry of the Environment of Japan, KAKENHI (24710021; Grant-in-Aid for Young Scientists B by JSPS), and the Centre for Environmental Remote Sensing, Chiba University. H. Muraoka is supported by the JSPS Funding Programme for Next Generation World-Leading Researchers (NEXT Programme).