Patronage, politics and performance: radio call-in programmes and the myth of accountability

Abstract

The role of media in promoting political accountability and citizen participation is a central issue in governance debates. Drawing on research into the interactions between radio station owners, journalists, audiences and public authorities during Somali radio call-in programmes we argue that these programmes do not simply offer a new platform for citizens to challenge those who are governing but that they are also spaces where existing power structures reproduce themselves in new forms. We identify the ways the programmes are structured and the different motivations the audience has for participation. Three types of programmes are identified and their relationships with patronage, politics, and performance are examined. Rather than focusing on normative assumptions about the media as a tool of accountability, the article emphasises the importance of understanding radio programmes in their social and political environment, including the overlapping relationships between on-air and off-air networks.

Keywords:

• accountability
• governance
• Somalia
• participation
• media
• ICTs

Acknowledgements

The authors are grateful for the research assistance and support of Ridwan Osman, Gianluca Iazzolino and Adan Mohamud Hussein.

Notes

1. Humphreys and Weinstein, “Policing Politicians”; and Gilberds and Myers, “Radio, ICT Convergence and Knowledge Brokerage.”

2. BBC Monitoring Africa, Somalia Media Guide; Infoasaid, Somali Media and Telecoms; and Oxford PCMLP, Media, Power and Politics.

3. Bayart et al., Le Politique par le bas en Afrique Noire.

4. Stremlau, “Towards a Diagnostic”.

5. Interviews were conducted in Nairobi, the UK and Somaliland. Telephone interviews were conducted to reach informants in the areas of Somalia that for security concerns were not directly accessible. Given the sensitivity of the issues discussed, some respondents requested anonymity.

6. Star FM is privately owned by a group of Somali businessmen and also has studios in Garissa and Dadaab, and relay stations in Wajir, Madogo in the Tana River Valley and Mandera in the northeast province of Kenya. In addition Star FM has FM stations in Mogadishu and Guriceel. The expansion of Star FM in south-central Somalia has been partially supported by the international NGO, Internews, with funding from USAID. By virtue of this expansion and the audience it reaches, Star FM is regarded as an important Somali-language radio station in the region, with growing influence. A major part of Star FM’s programming – including the entire morning programme and the evening programme after 6 pm – features call-in programming. The ethnographic research was conducted over a five-week period in December 2012 and January 2013. We selected Star FM as the site for our ethnographic work partly because of security concerns, as it reaches Somalis in conflict-affected regions of the Somali Territories but is based in Nairobi. Our focus was on Star FM’s morning programme, which was followed every Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday. This programme was selected because of its high level of debate and dialogue, particularly on political issues in Kenya and Somalia.

7. The majority of listeners preferred to participate by phoning in from a mobile rather than sending SMS or posting on Facebook, all of which these programmes also facilitate. Phoning is seen as relatively inexpensive, and a more effective and efficient way of sharing opinions and raising questions. Participants also expressed a strong desire to hear their voice over the radio and to allow their relatives and friends to do the same. Facebook and SMS were often used when listeners had technical problems, were calling internationally or could not get through because the lines were busy. These other forms of communication were not considered as engaging, and some interviewees and regular callers described SMS as non-participation.

8. Given our interest in understanding the motivations and the role of citizens who engage with call-in programmes, we focused on the most active and engaged callers. We contacted 15 of them and conducted semi-structured interviews with 13.

9. Gagliardone, “From Mapping Information Ecologies to Evaluating Media Interventions”; and Schoemaker and Stremlau, “Media and Conflict.”

10. Thornborrow and Fitzgerald, “‘Grab a Pen and Paper’,” 3.

11. Ligaga et al., Radio in Africa.

12. Gilberds and Myers, “Radio, ICT Convergence and Knowledge Brokerage”; and Bosch, “Talk Radio.”

13. Devas and Grant, “Local Government Decision-making.”

14. The World Bank, for example, is experimenting with community radio stations in Zambia as a tool for social accountability. World Bank, Can ICT-enabled Feedback Improve Service Delivery?

15. Booth and Cammack, Governance for Development in Africa.

16. Lee and Lin, “Officials’ Accountability Performance,” 223.

17. Dori-Hacohen, “Gatekeeping Public Participation”; and Ytreberg, “Formatting Participation.”

18. An exception to this is Somaliland where private radio stations remain restricted. See, Stremlau, “Hostages of Peace”.

19. There are not only national laws that attempt to regulate the media but Sharia courts and xeer law also have a central role. For a detailed study on the legal environment for the media. See: Stremlau, “Media Law”.

20. Radio Bar Kulan was established in 2010 by the African Union/United Nations Information Support Team in Nairobi. In November 2012 the radio was transferred to a new status as a nongovernmental organisation. However, until April 2013 the radio was still receiving its primary financial support from international donors.

21. Off, “Somalia.”

22. Ibid.

23. Radio Shabelle, for example, launched Tartan Aqooneedka Shabelle, a popular talk show that was forced to stop broadcasting in 2009 because of continued threats from Islamist militias.

23. Hammond, “Somalia Rising.”

24. Osman 2012

25. Anonymous interviewee, 2013.

26. As explained in the documents available on the State Department’s website, “Solicitation/Contract/Order for Commercial Items,” http://photos.state.gov/libraries/kenya/28844/revised_001/amended.pdf; and “Questions,” http://photos.state.gov/libraries/uganda/231771/PDFs/somalia_questions_final.pdf.

27. Anonymous interviewee, 2013.

28. Anonymous interviewee, 2013.

29. Anonymous interviewee, 2013.

30. Anonymous interviewee, 2013.

31. Horst 2006.

32. Anonymous interviewee, 2013.

33. Anonymous interviewee, 2013.

34. Ibid (emphasis added).

35. Anonymous interviewee, 2013.