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Abstract
Regional and hemispheric reconfigurations in Latin America and the Caribbean are increasingly mediated by Brazilian power, and the engagement of Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana with this emerging context is intriguing. They are tentatively moving away from a Caribbean region with which they are culturally contiguous, towards a South American continent in which they are geographically located. This is partly a reflection of the gradual opening up of the Northern Amazonian space that they share collectively, and also with Venezuela and Brazil. These processes are occurring as cause and effect of Brazil’s emergence as a regional – and even regionally hegemonic – power. With reference to wider debates on regionalism and hegemony, we analyse the uncertain consequences of these shifts.
Acknowledgements
In 2016 the authors will be publishing an edited collection in the Ashgate Political Economy of New Regionalisms series that addresses in more detail many of the themes covered in this paper. They would also like to acknowledge the two anonymous reviewers for very helpful comments on the first draft of the paper.
Notes
1. Riggirozzi, “Regionalism through Social Policy.”
2. We should note here that the notion of the ‘Three Guianas’ is primarily a historical reference that we use for convenience to highlight the similarities between the three territories. In the colonial period we could indeed have spoken of British Guiana (now Guyana), Dutch Guiana (now Suriname) and French Guiana (which is now a non-independent territory, the French Overseas Department of la Guyane). At one time it may actually have been proper to speak of Five Guianas, but both Portuguese and Spanish Guiana have experienced different destinies: the former is today the state of Amapá in Brazil and the latter now comprises a large swathe of contemporary Venezuela.
3. Gamble and Payne, “Introduction,” 2.
4. Hettne, “Beyond the ‘New’ Regionalism,” 543.
5. Ibid.
6. See Hettne and Söderbaum, “Theorising the Rise of Regionness”; and Hettne, “Beyond the ‘New’ Regionalism.”
7. See Gamble and Payne, “Introduction”; and Bowles, “Regionalism and Development.”
8. Hettne, “Beyond the ‘New’ Regionalism,” 543.
9. Bishop, “Whither CARICOM?”
10. See Payne, The Political History of CARICOM; and Bishop and Payne, Caribbean Regional Governance.
11. Riggirozzi, “Region, Regionness and Regionalism.”
12. Ibid., 422.
13. Emerson, “An Art of the Region,” 560.
14. See Hoefte et al., “Still Lonely after all these Years?”
15. For a classic overview of this debate, see Strange, “The Persistent Myth.” For a more recent account, see Layne, “This Time it’s Real.”
16. See Mearsheimer, The Tragedy of Great Power Politics.
17. Nye, Soft Power.
18. Soreanu Pecequilo and Alves do Carmo, “Regional Integration,” 51.
19. See Burges, “Brazil’s International Development Co-operation”; Krapohl et al., “Regional Powers as Leaders?”; and Flemes and Wehner, “Drivers of Strategic Contestation.”
20. Schenoni, “Ascenso y hegemonía.”
21. Ban, “Brazil’s Liberal Neo-developmentalism,” 2.
22. Dauvergne and Farias, “The Rise of Brazil.”
23. “Deeper Caricom Integration.”
24. Banks, “Integratie van Suriname.”
25. Drzeniek-Hanouz et al., Measuring the Competitiveness, 28.
26. Riggirozzi, “Region, Regionness and Regionalism”; and Riggirozzi, “Regionalism, Activism, and Rights.”
27. Kirton, “CARICOM’s Engagement with Latin America.”
28. Mrgudovic, “Evolving Approaches.”
29. Bryan, “Petrocaribe and CARICOM.”
30. Corrales and Penfold, Dragon in the Tropics.
31. “Venezuela dumps Guyana.”
32. Bueno et al., “Latin American Integration.”
33. Burges, “Brazil as a Bridge,” 577.
34. See Lins, Rio Branco, 613; and Bueno et al., “Latin American Integration.”
35. Avila, “Em Defesa.”
36. Montero, Brazil.
37. Burges, Brazilian Foreign Policy.
38. Cervo. “Brazil’s Rise on the International Scene,” 11.
39. Vigevani and Ramanzini Jr., “The Impact of Domestic Politics.”
40. Soares de Lima and Hirst, “Brazil as an Intermediate State,” 30.
41. Burges, “Brazil as a Bridge,” 582.
42. Burges, “Building a Global Southern Coalition,” 1344.
43. Gratius and Gomes Saraiva, Continental Regionalism, 3.
44. Soares de Lima and Hirst, “Brazil as an Intermediate State.”
45. Montero, Brazil, 175.
46. Montero, Brazil, 165.
47. Soreanu Pecequilo and Alves do Carmo, “Regional Integration and Brazil,” 62.
48. Burges, “Building a Global Southern Coalition,” 1348.
49. Gratius and Gomes Saraiva, Continental Regionalism, 6.
50. Dauvergne and Farias, “The Rise of Brazil,” 903.
51. COHA, Brazil and UNASUR.
52. “The Big Oily.”
53. Grant, “The Three Guianas.”
54. Janssen, In Search of a Path, 120.
55. Grant, “The Three Guianas,” 329.
56. Janssen, In Search of a Path, 120–121.
57. Grant, “The Three Guianas.”
58. Montoute, “Emerging Players in the Caribbean,” 10.
59. “Brazil recommits to Lethem Road.”
60. De West, “Suriname intensiveert betrekkingen”; “Braziliaanse missies voor”; “Verdrag Suriname Brazilië”; and “In oktober gezamenlijke.”
61. “Suriname opent consulaat.”
62. Granger, “As Guianas e o Brasil.”
63. Jacobs, “The Loneliness of the Guyanas.”
64. Kolen et al., “Small-scale Gold Mining.”
65. Hoefte. Suriname in the Long Twentieth Century.
66. ABS, Report on the Census 2004 Coverage and Evaluation–Suriname, 26–27.
67. De Theije, “Transnationalism in Surinam.”
68. ABS, Definitieve resultaten.
69. Lamé, “Net herkozen en Bouterse.”
70. See Carlin and Mans, “Movement through Time,” 76–77; and Simonian and da Silva Ferreira, “Brazilian Migrant Workers,” 99.
71. Van Stipriaan, “Maroons,” 154–155.
72. De Theije and Bal, “Flexible Migrants,” 67.
73. De Theije and Heemskerk, “Moving Frontiers in the Amazon,” 13–19.
74. “Ook dit is geen Suriname”; “Vijf mannen veroordeeld”; and Menke and Pérez, Surinamese Strategic Culture, 23.
75. Lloyd, The Unpaved Road.
76. Piantoni, L'enjeu migratoire, 9–11; and Simonian and da Silva Ferreira, “Brazilian Migrant Workers,” 100–104, 110.
77. Sanders, “French Bridge to Brazil.”
78. Guyana Bureau of Statistics, GDP & Trade Statistics.
79. “Suriname Trade Statistics.”
80. “Guyana, Suriname Trade with Brazil.”
81. Van Dijck, The Impact of the IIRSA Road Infrastructure Programme, 251.
82. Gehre and Linhares, “Brazil and Guyana”; and da Silva and Silva, Relações Internacionais Brasil–Suriname.
83. Van Dijck, “Troublesome Construction,” 103.
84. Carciofi, “Cooperation.”
85. Van Dijck, “Troublesome Construction,” 101.
86. Van Dijck, “Troublesome Construction,” 111.
87. Dupeyron, “Perspectives on Mercosur Borders,” 63.