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Abstract
European officials veer towards exceptionalism in their policy communications concerning the EU’s global role, particularly in terms of African development. This article poses a rejoinder to such tendencies through examination of the rise of ‘virtuous power Turkey’ in Africa. It examines how Turkish elites constructed a moralised ‘neo-Ottoman’ foreign policy in wake of stalled EU accession. It then underscores how elites framed humanitarian interventions in sub-Saharan Africa in contrast to the perceived neo-colonialism of an EU ‘other’. In this vein, the article explores the meaning of normative ‘neo-Ottomanism’ for ostensible beneficiaries in Africa, for the EU, and for Turkey itself.
Acknowledgement
Sincere thanks to the reviewers for their very helpful comments and suggestions.
Notes
1. Erdogan cited in TIKA, Turkish Development (2011), preamble.
2. Langan, “Budget Support,” 101–2.
3. Manners, “Normative Power Europe,” 240.
4. Ibid.
5. Diez, “Normative Power as Hegemony”; Storey, “Normative Power Europe?”
6. Murphy and Woods, “Turkey’s International Development Framework.”
7. Aglionby et al., “Reasons.”
8. Wodak, “Aspects of Critical Discourse Analysis”; van Djik, “Principles of Critical Discourse Analysis”; van Djik, “Discourse, Context, and Cognition”; Fairclough, “Language and Globalisation.”
9. Rudincová, “New player,” 199.
10. Robins, “Turkey’s ‘Double Gravity’ Predicament,” 384.
11. Vera, “Neo-Ottomans.”
12. cited in Aggestam, “Role Conceptions.”
13. Ibid.
14. Wodak, “Aspects of Critical Discourse Analysis”; van Djik, “Principles of Critical Discourse Analysis”; van Djik, “Discourse, Context, and Cognition”; Fairclough, “Language and Globalisation.”
15. Anderson, Imagined Communities.
16. Fairclough et al., “Critical Discourse Analysis,” 358.
17. Halerfoğlu, cited in Bilgin and Bilgiç, “Turkey and EU/rope,” 116.
18. Gul and Davutoglu, cited in Haşimi, “Turkey’s Humanitarian Diplomacy,” 133.
19. Cited in Harte, “Turkey Shocks Africa,” 28.
20. Cited in Yanik, “Contesting Turkish ‘Exceptionalism,’” 84.
21. Cited in Bilgiç and Nascimento, “Turkey’s New Focus,” 2.
22. Birdal, “Davutoglu Doctrine,” 105.
23. Birdal, “Davutoglu Doctrine,” 101; Kösebalaban Turkish Foreign Policy, 151.
24. Ongur, “Identifying Ottomanisms,” 417.
25. Park, “Turkey’s New Foreign Policy,” 163.
26. Murphy and Woods, “Turkey’s International Development Framework,” 10.
27. Yanik, “Contesting Turkish ‘Exceptionalism,’” 84.
28. Bilgiç and Nascimento, “Turkey’s New Focus.”
29. Harte, “Turkey Shocks Africa,” 28.
30. Manners, “Normative Power Europe.”
31. Cited in Bilgiç and Nascimento, “Turkey’s New Focus,” 2.
32. Hashemi, “Ottoman Response,” 82.
33. Rudincová, “New Player,” 199.
34. Cited in Ibid.
35. Cited in Ali, “Turkey’s Foray into Africa,” 66.
36. Ali, “Turkey’s Foray into Africa,” 72.
37. Cited in Harte, “Turkey Shocks Africa,” 31, emphasis added.
38. Özkan and Akgün, “Turkey’s Opening to Africa,” 538.
39. TIKA, “Turkish Development 2012”; TIKA “Turkish Development 2013.”
40. Harte, “Turkey Shocks Africa,” 30.
41. Özkan and Orakçi, “Viewpoint,” 344.
42. Erdogan, “Statement.”
43. Harte, “Turkey Shocks Africa,” 27.
44. Özkan and Orakçi, “Viewpoint,” 348.
45. Harte, “Turkey Shocks Africa,” 27.
46. Cited in i24news.tv, Turkish President.
47. Radio Muqdisho, President.
48. Harte, “Turkey Shocks Africa,” 28.
49. Haşimi, “Turkey’s Humanitarian Diplomacy,” 126–8.
50. Ali, “Turkey’s Foray into Africa,” 65.
51. Wodak, “Aspects of Critical Discourse Analysis”; van Djik, “Principles of Critical Discourse Analysis”; van Djik “Discourse, Context, and Cognition”; Fairclough “Language and Globalisation.”
52. Kagwanja, “Turkey in Somalia.”
53. Ibid.
54. Harte, “Turkey Shocks Africa,” 31.
55. Reuters, Somali Port.
56. Yurdusev, Ottoman Diplomacy, 31.
57. Özkan and Orakçi, “Viewpoint,” 343.
58. Murphy and Woods, “Turkey’s International Development Framework,” 3.
59. Bayart, Politics of the Belly.
60. Murphy and Woods, “Turkey’s International Development Framework,” 3.
61. Shinn, “Turkey’s Engagement.”
62. Mauritius Chamber of Commerce and Industry, Mauritius-Turkey.
63. Ryan, “Ottoman Brethren.”
64. Young, “Turkey is Boosting.”
65. Altintas, “What is Turkey.”
66. Rubin, “Tape Suggests.”
67. Kredo, “Turkish Tweet Turns Heads.”
68. Ali, “Turkey’s Foray into Africa,” 68.
69. Rudincová, “New Player,” 201.
70. Said, Orientalism.
71. Erdogan, “Statement.”
72. Counter Balance, Coherence; Friends of the Earth, European Investment Bank; Brynildsen and Nombora, “Mining.”
73. Langan, “Budget Support”; Alvarez, “Rise of Budget Support”; Wolff, “EU Budget Support.”
74. Şemsettin Günaltay, cited in Hashemi, “Ottoman Response,” 89.
75. Murphy and Woods, “Turkey’s International Development Framework,” 10.