http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2746-9752
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Abstract
Despite a recent resurgence in research on the politics of migration, foreign policy analysts have yet to approach cross-border population mobility as a distinct field of inquiry. Particularly within the Global South, scant work has theorised the interplay between migration and interstate bargaining. This article proposes the framework of migration diplomacy to examine how mobility features in states’ issue-linkage strategies, in both cooperative and coercive contexts. Drawing on Arabic, French and English primary sources, it empirically demonstrates the salience of its framework through an analysis of Libya’s migration diplomacy towards its Arab, African and European neighbours under Muammar Gaddafi.
Acknowledgements
The author wishes to thank Stefan Wolff and Adam Quinn for their insightful comments on an earlier draft of the manuscript.
Notes
1. Quoted in The Guardian, “Turkish President Threatens.”
2. Hollifield, “Politics of International Migration,” 189.
3. Zolberg, “Next Waves”; Weiner and Russell, Demography and National Security.
4. Messina, “From Migrants to Refugees”; Tempo, Americans at the Gate; Oyen, Diplomacy of Migration.
5. Castles, Miller, and De Haas, Age of Migration, 26.
6. Sassen, Mobility of Labor and Capital; cf. Cornelius, Martin, and Hollifield, “Introduction: The Ambivalent Quest.”
7. Indicatively: Teitelbaum, “Immigration, Refugees, and Foreign Policy”; Hollifield, Immigrants, Markets, and States; Guiraudon and Lahav, Immigration Policy in Europe; Betts and Loescher, “Refugees in International Relations”; A. Geddes and Scholten, Politics of Migration and Immigration in Europe; Huysmans, “European Union and the Securitization of Migration”; İçduygu and Aksel, “Two-to-Tango in Migration Diplomacy.”
8. Adamson, “Growing Importance of Diaspora Politics”; Koinova, “Four Types of Diaspora Mobilization.”
9. Østergaard-Nielsen, International Migration and Sending Countries; Brand, Citizens Abroad; Fitzgerald, Nation of Emigrants; Naujoks, Migration, Citizenship, and Development; Délano and Gamlen, “Comparing and Theorizing State–Diaspora Relations”; Margheritis, Migration Governance Across Regions; Adamson, “Sending States”; Koinova, “Sending States and Diaspora Positionality.”
10. Tsourapas, “Why Do States Develop.”
11. Keohane and Nye, Power and Interdependence; Keohane and Nye, “Power and Interdependence Revisited.”
12. Hansen, Koehler, and Money, Migration, Nation States, and International Cooperation; cf. Hollifield, “Migration and International Relations”; Haas, Beyond the Nation State.
13. Moravcsik, Choice for Europe.
14. Greenhill, Weapons of Mass Migration; Greenhill, “Use of Refugees as Political and Military Weapons.”
15. Klotz, “Migration After Apartheid”; Thiollet, “Migration as Diplomacy”; Curley and Wong, Security and Migration in Asia.
16. Brand, Jordan’s Inter-Arab Relations, 148.
17. Adamson and Tsourapas, “Migration Diplomacy.”
18. Haas, “Why Collaborate?”; Davis, “Linkage Diplomacy.”
19. Levitsky and Way, Competitive Authoritarianism.
20. Martin, “Interests, Power, and Multilateralism.”
21. Mack, “Why Big Nations Lose Small Wars”; Arreguin-Toft, How the Weak Win Wars; Paul, Asymmetric Conflicts, 20. An exception here is Greenhill’s work, which however only ascribes Global South states as coercers in these processes.
22. Baldwin, “The Power of Positive Sanctions.”
23. Mellinger and van Berlo, “Jordan Compact.”
24. Drezner, The Sanctions Paradox: Economic Statecraft and International Relations.
25. Miyashita, Limits to Power, 163.
26. Gerring, “Is There a (Viable) Crucial-Case Method?”
27. Paoletti, “Migration and Foreign Policy”; Tsourapas, “Politics of Egyptian Migration to Libya.”
28. Paoletti, Migration of Power; Joffé, “Libya and the European Union”; Lutterbeck, “Migrants, Weapons and Oil.”
29. Paoletti, “Migration and Foreign Policy,” 226–7.
30. Pliez, “De L’immigration Au Transit?”
31. Soliman, “Libyan Foreign Policy,” 75.
32. B. Geddes, “Cases You Choose Affect the Answers”; Collier and Mahoney, “Insights and Pitfalls.”
33. Van Evera, Methods for Students of Political Science.
34. Tsourapas, “Notes from the Field”; Kapiszewski, Nationals and Expatriates.
35. Fargues, “Fuzzy Lines of International Migration.”
36. Tsourapas, “Politics of Egyptian Migration to Libya.”
37. Cf. Tsourapas, “Nasser’s Educators and Agitators.”
38. Natter, “Revolution and Political Transition in Tunisia.”
39. Vandewalle, History of Modern Libya, 80.
40. Cooley, Libyan Sandstorm, 101.
41. Rohen, Qaddafi’s Libya in World Politics, 111.
42. Gaddafi. The New York Times, March 22, 1976.
43. MENA, April 24, 1975.
44. al-Ahram, April 24, 1975.
45. Akhbar al-Yawm, March 20, 1976.
46. Der Spiegel, March 26, 1976.
47. Tsourapas, “Trump’s Strategy on Immigration.”
48. Fawat, “Libya: Economic Crisis, Political Expulsions.”
49. United Press International, August 9, 1985.
50. The New York Times, August 18, 1985.
51. APS Diplomat Recorder, 1994.
52. Quoted in Paoletti, “Migration and Foreign Policy,” 225.
53. Quoted in US Department of State, “Background Note: Libya.”
54. For more information on the make-up of these migration flows, see Bredeloup and Pliez, “Libyan Migration Corridor.”
55. Paoletti, Migration of Power, 86.
56. Pliez, “Gros Plan,” 199.
57. Quoted by Reuters, June 24, 2002.
58. Quoted in Greenhill, Weapons of Mass Migration, 330–1.
59. Associated Press, June 24, 2003.
60. Ronzitti, “Treaty on Friendship, Partnership and Cooperation,” 125.
61. Squires, “Gaddafi: Europe Will ‘Turn Black.’”
62. Quoted in Greenhill, Kelly. Weapons of Mass Displacement, 331.
63. Tsourapas, “Labor Migrants as Political Leverage.”
64. Tsourapas, “Nasser’s Educators and Agitators.”
65. Greenhill, “Engineered Migration and the Use of Refugees.”
66. Blue, “Cuban Medical Internationalism”; Tsourapas, “Migration as Soft Power.”