http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5820-3861
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Abstract
China enjoys considerable popularity in the Middle East and Africa, not only among elites but also at street level. This article draws on international relations theories to explain this general pattern, as well as intra- and interregional variation. Every approach has something to contribute, but international political economy more so than realism. Constructivist theories are particularly useful in explaining China’s popularity in the Middle East and Africa.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
Acknowledgements
Thanks are due to the anonymous reviewers, Raphael Bradenbrink, Ivan Manokha and to my students for providing critical feedback and helpful suggestions.
Notes on contributor
Jörg Friedrichs is Associate Professor of Politics at the Department of International Development and Fellow of St Cross College, University of Oxford. His current research focuses on Muslim-majority relations. He has published in journals such as International Organization, International Theory, Asian Survey and Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs. His publications include an article on Han-Muslim relations in China (Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, 2017) and another piece where he discusses China’s relations with its Muslim-majority neighbouring countries (European Journal of International Security, 2018). His latest book is entitled Hindu–Muslim Relations: What Europe Might Learn from India (Routledge, 2019).
Notes
1 The region extending from Morocco to Iran, including the Mediterranean countries of North Africa and the Arab-majority countries of West Asia. Israel and Turkey are not included.
2 All countries of the African continent except for the Mediterranean states of North Africa, which are seen as part of the Middle East.
3 Pew Research Center, Trump’s International Ratings Remain Low, 52.
4 Arab Center, 2017–2018 Arab Opinion Index, 27.
5 Arab Center, 2016 Arab Opinion Index, 11.
6 Questions 7001 and 7009, http://www.arabbarometer.org/, accessed 7 January 2019.
7 Telhami, The World through Arab Eyes, 175.
8 Keuleers, “Explaining External Perceptions”; Hanusch, “African Perspectives on China–Africa”; Afrobarometer, “China’s Growing Presence in Africa.”
9 Fioramonti and Kimunguyi, “Public and Elite Views.”
10 Sautman and Yan, “African Perspectives on China–Africa Links.”
11 Olimat, China and the Middle East; Olimat, China and North Africa.
12 Scobell and Nader, China in the Middle East.
13 Zhao, “China’s Dilemma on Iran.”
14 Kamel, “China’s Belt and Road Initiative.”
15 Shinn, “Extended Ground for US–China Competition?” 50–2.
16 Alden and Alves, “China’s Regional Forum Diplomacy.”
17 Simpfendorfer, The New Silk Road; Ho, “Mobilizing the Muslim Minority for China’s Development.”
18 Bodomo, “The Bridge Is Not Burning Down,” 66.
19 Hanauer and Morris, Chinese Engagement in Africa, 67–71.
20 Sautman and Yan, “African Perspectives on China–Africa Links,” 752–4.
21 Hess and Aidoo, “Charting the Roots of Anti-Chinese Populism in Africa.”
22 Hayoun, “Strange Bedfellows.”
23 Erian, “China at the Libyan Endgame.”
24 Hanusch, “African Perspectives on China–Africa”; Keuleers, “Explaining External Perceptions.”
25 Soroka, “Media, Public Opinion, and Foreign Policy”; Baum and Potter, “Relationships between Mass Media”; Kertzer and Zeitzoff, “A Bottom-up Theory of Public Opinion About Foreign Policy.”
26 Morgenthau, Politics among Nations; Waltz, Theory of International Politics.
27 Organski, World Politics; Gilpin, War and Change in World Politics.
28 Gilpin, War and Change in World Politics.
29 Mearsheimer, “China’s Unpeaceful Rise.”
30 Alison, Destined for War.
31 Rose, “Neoclassical Realism and Theories of Foreign Policy.”
32 S⊘rensen, “Is China Becoming More Aggressive?”; Schweller, “China’s Aspirations.”
33 Keskin and Braun, “When a Sleeping Giant Wakes.”
34 Arab Center, 2017–2018 Arab Opinion Index, 30.
35 Ayoob, “Inequality and Theorizing in International Relations.”
36 Moravcsik, “Taking Preferences Seriously”; Moravcsik, “The New Liberalism.”
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38 Calculations based on BP, BP Statistical Review of World Energy, 24.
39 Keohane, After Hegemony, 217–40.
40 Source: http://www.pewglobal.org/, accessed 2 March 2019.
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42 Krasner, Structural Conflict.
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44 Cardoso and Faletto, Dependency and Development in Latin America.
45 Norris, Chinese Economic Statecraft.
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47 Kamel, “China’s Belt and Road Initiative.”
48 Addis and Zhu, “Criticism of Neo-Colonialism,” 357, 365.
49 Berger and Luckmann, The Social Construction of Reality.
50 Wendt, “Anarchy Is What States Make of It”; Wendt, Social Theory of International Relations.
51 Cited in Sun and Zoubir, “China’s Economic Diplomacy,” 910.
52 Strauss, “The Past in the Present.”
53 Shinn, “Extended Ground for US–China Competition?”
54 Nye, Soft Power, x.
55 Wang, “Public Diplomacy and the Rise of Chinese Soft Power”; Zhu, China’s New Diplomacy.
56 Kurlantzick, Charm Offensive.
57 Shambaugh, “China’s Soft-Power Push.”
58 Nye, “What China and Russia Don’t Get About Soft Power.”
59 Nye, Is the American Century Over?
60 Pew Research Center, Trump’s International Ratings Remain Low, 56–7; Pew Research Center, Globally, More Name US Than China as World’s Leading Economic Power, 28–30.
61 Tella, “Wielding Soft Power in Strategic Regions.”
62 Stout, “Blockbuster Battle.”
63 Friedrichs, “An Intercultural Theory of International Relations.”
64 Ho, “On the Concept of Face,” 883.
65 Qi, “Face: A Chinese Concept."
66 Hu, “The Chinese Concepts of ‘Face’”; Gries, “A ‘China Threat?’”; He and Zhang, “Re-Conceptualizing the Chinese Concept of Face.”
67 Pitt-Rivers, “Honour and Social Status,” 21.
68 Stewart, Honor.
69 Iliffe, Honour in African History.
70 Stewart, Honor, 21.
71 Friedrichs, “An Intercultural Theory of International Relations,” 85.
72 Jacques, When China Rules the World.
73 Alden and Large, “China’s Exceptionalism,” 21.
74 Brautigam, The Dragon’s Gift, 68.
75 Nkrumah, Neocolonialism.
76 Human Rights Watch, “You’ll Be Fired If You Refuse”; Zhao, “A Neo-Colonialist Predator or Development Partner?” 1043–4.
77 Kynge, "Chinese Contractors Grab Lion’s Share of Silk Road Projects.”
78 Addis and Zhu, “Criticism of Neo-Colonialism.”
79 Friedrichs, “Intermestic Security Challenges”; Friedrichs, “Sino–Muslim Relations.”
80 Ryan et al., “Mapping Xinjiang’s ‘Re-Education’ Camps.”
81 Frankel, “Chinese–Islamic Connections,” 578–81.
82 BP, BP Statistical Review of World Energy, 24.
83 Al-Tamini, China–Saudi Arabia Relations.
84 Zhao, “China’s Dilemma on Iran.”
85 Garver, China and Iran, 129–38.
86 Shichor, “Respected and Suspected,” 127–8.