Arab encounters with Maoist China: transnational journeys, diasporic lives and intellectual discourses

Abstract

This paper examines the appeal exerted by Maoist China upon a broad category of Arab onlookers from the mid-twentieth century onwards. It accomplishes this by focussing on the writings of two categories of observers: short-term visitors, who had experienced China through government-organised planned tours, and long-term residents, foreign experts, who had been recruited by the Chinese state as language instructors, translators and editors. Across the ideological spectrum and with a high-degree of consistency, these diverse onlookers articulated highly romanticised images of Maoist China as a model for post-colonial modernity. These sympathetic imaginaries, the paper argues, stemmed less from a systematic engagement with Chinese realities on-the-ground, and more from a sense of anxiety over the Arab world. Maoist China was in essence reconceptualized as a ‘homeland that could have been,’ offering lessons as well as hope for the future as filtered through the ideological biases of these observers. The paper discusses the writings of short-term visitors and long-term residents through a broader retelling of the history of the Arab diaspora in Maoist and early post-Maoist China. It also utilises previously neglected sources, most notably the China-centric works of Salamah ‘Ubayd (1921–1984) and Hadi al-’Alawi (1932–1998), in presenting its key arguments.

Keywords:

• China
• Arab World
• Marxism
• nation-building
• decolonisation
• diaspora

Acknowledgements

The author would like to express his thanks to Harry Verhoeven, Timothy Niblock, Ding Long, Dror Weil, She Gangzheng, Abdulkarim al-Ja’di, Michael Gibbs Hill, Faisal Abulhasan and the two anonymous reviewers for their valuable input and feedback. The author acknowledges with gratitude the generous support of the Hong Kong Research Council (RGC CRF HKU C7052-18G) without which the timely production of this publication would not have been feasible.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Notes on contributor

Mohammed Turki Alsudairi is the Head of the Asian Studies Unit at the King Faisal Center for Research and Islamic Studies (KFCRIS) and Postdoctoral Fellow at the Hong Kong Institute for Humanities and Social Sciences (HKIHSS). Al-Sudairi obtained a PhD in Comparative Politics from the University of Hong Kong. His research interests encompass Sino-Middle Eastern Relations, Islamic and leftist connections between East Asia and the Arab World, and Chinese politics.

Notes

1 Lin, “Foreword to the Second Edition”; Cook, The Little Red Book; Kang, “Maoism,” 12–28; Lovell, Maoism.

2 Ismael, The Communist Movement, 20; Samir, Sira thatiyya, 37, 57–60; Haddad-Fonda, “An illusory alliance,” 346–347.

3 Harris, “China’s Relations with the PLO,” 126.

4 Chen, Occidentalism, 8, 27–48.

5 Brady, Making the Foreign Serve China, 99.

6 Lovell, “The Uses of Foreigners,” 141–144; “Zhongguo tong aiji de guanxi.”

7 Brady, Making the Foreign Serve China, 89.

8 Haddad-Fonda, “What Knowledge is Sought in China?,” 13.

9 Friedman, Shadow Cold War, 89; Haddad-Fonda, “Afro-Asian Writers’ Conferences.”

10 Larkin, China and Africa, 83–84; Zhou, “Global reporting from the Third World,” 182–183.

11 Behbehani, China’s Foreign Policy, 334.

12 Ibid, 329–334.

13 Ibid, 333; “Shipin: 1964nian Zhou Enlai jiejian aerjiliya wenhua daibiaotuan”; “Untitled report about a Communist delegation’s visit to Moscow.”

14 “History,” Pakistan International Airways.

15 Hamdi, Iraqi fi al-sin, 28–29, 168–169; Al-Durra, Tajrubat al-shuyu’iyya, 109, 139; Al-Nashashibi, ‘Arabi fi al-sin, 176–179.

16 Al-Durra, Tajrubat al-shuyu’iyya, 109.

17 Hamdi, Iraqi fi al-sin, 28–29, 33–43, 54–70, 86–88.

18 Al-Nashashibi, ‘Arabi fi al-sin, 115–116.

19 Hamdi, Iraqi fi al-sin, 71–74, 90–93.

20 Al-Durra, Tajrubat al-shuyu’iyya, 124; ‘Ubayd, Al-sharq al-ahmar, 82–85.

21 Ibid, 85; Jin, “Lianhuanhua.”

22 Hamdi, Iraqi fi al-sin, 44–48; Al-Adhami, Al-sin al-jadida, 62–67.

23 Benite, “Taking ‘Abduh to China,” 264.

24 Haddad-Fonda, “What Knowledge is Sought in China?” 13–15.

25 Ibid, 13–14.

26 Al-Adhami, Al-sin al-jadida, 48–55.

27 Wlodzimierz, “Bringing China and Islam Closer.”

28 Al-muslimun fi al-sin, 16–17, 23–24; Li, “Gaoshang renge mumin kaimo.”

29 Kanafani, Al-dirasat al-siyasiyya, 255.

30 Al-Durra, Tajrubat al-shuyu’iyya, 363; Al-Nashashibi, ‘Arabi fi al-sin, 109–111, 219.

31 Al-Nashashibi, ‘Arabi fi al-sin, 68.

32 Al-Durra, Tajrubat al-shuyu’iyya, 261, 263.

33 Ibid, 262–263.

34 Kanafani, Al-dirasat al-siyasiyya, 266.

35 Al-Nashashibi, ‘Arabi fi al-sin, 209.

36 Al-Adhami, Al-sin al-jadida, 68–69.

37 Al-Durra, Tajrubat al-shuyu’iyya, 121–122.

38 Ibid, 122.

39 Kanafani, Al-dirasat al-siyasiyya, 227–228.

40 Ibid, 244–246, 259, 298; Al-Nashashibi, ‘Arabi fi al-sin, 219–222.

41 Hamdi, Iraqi fi al-sin, 31–32; Al-Nashashibi, ‘Arabi fi al-sin, 208.

42 Al-Nashashibi, ‘Arabi fi al-sin, 94, 282; Kanafani, Al-dirasat al-siyasiyya, 288.

43 Kanafani, Al-dirasat al-siyasiyya, 301.

44 Hamdi, Iraqi fi al-sin, 50.

45 Al-Durra, Tajrubat al-shuyu’iyya, 176.

46 Al-Adhami, Al-sin al-jadida, 176.

47 Al-Nashashibi, ‘Arabi fi al-sin, 238; Al-Durra, Tajrubat al-shuyu’iyya, 407.

48 Behbehani, China’s Foreign Policy, 2–4.

49 Beverley, Foreigners Under Mao, 28; “Na Zhong.” Baike; Email correspondence with Dr. Ding Long (22 May 2020).

50 Beverley, Foreigners Under Mao, 164–165.

51 Brady, Making the Foreign Serve China, 90; “1957nian,” China Radio International.

52 Xu, “Translation and internationalism,” 81–82.

53 Ibid, 81.

54 Zhongguo muslin shenghuo; Zhongguo de musilin.

55 Lesse, “A single spark,” 23.

56 Chen, “A Single Spark Can Start a Prairie Fire,” 161–164.

57 Ibid, 162.

58 Ibid, 163.

59 Muqtatafat min aqwal al-rais.

60 Mu’alafat Mao… al-awal; Mu’alafat Mao… al-thani; Mu’alafat Mao…al-thalith; Mu’alafat Mao…al-rabi’.

61 Xu, “Translation and internationalism,” 79–80.

62 Mustapha, Al-sin al-mutaharira.

63 Min & Ma, “Zhongguo dui Alabo shijie,” 55; “Peking Review / Beijing Review,” Massline.

64 “(al-Sin al-yawm) al-’arabiyya tastawtin.” Zhongguowang.

65 Xu, “Translation and internationalism,” 78.

66 Beverley, Foreigners Under Mao, 165.

67 Mina, Hadatha fi baytakhu, 5.

68 Ibid, 44–57, 76–85; Mina, ‘Arus al-mawja, 83–84.

69 Hamdi, Iraqi fi al-sin, 53.

70 Farman’s authorship of a book on Lu Xun may have been a facilitating factor as well. Habba, “Ghaib Tu’ma Farman”; Farman, Lushun ‘qaid.

71 Habba, “Ghaib Tu’ma Farman.”

72 Mina,’Arus al-mawja, 94; Mina, Al-mugamara al-akhira, 35–36.

73 Mina, ‘Arus al-mawja, 54.

74 Ibid, 63; Mina, Al-mugamara al-akhira, 23–27.

75 Mina, Al-mugamara al-akhira, 201–203.

76 Mina, Hadatha fi baytakhu, 193–194, 286–295; Al-Sudairi, “Among Old Friends.”

77 Al-istratijiyya al-siyasiyya. PFLP, 6, 56, 76–77; Al-Sudairi, “Among Old Friends.”

78 Peng & Zhang, “Zhandou niandai de zhandouzhige.”

79 Email correspondence with Dr. Timothy Niblock (16–17 April 2020).

80 Ahmed, Al-’ilaqat al-sudaniyya-al-siniyya, 105.

81 “The Chinese People’s Most Precious Gift,” Peking Review, 30.

82 “Afro-Asian Writers and Journalists,” Peking Review, 32; “Peking Mass Rally,” Peking Review, 13; Kheir, “Speech by Sudanese Delegate,” 73–82.

83 Ahmed, Al-’ilaqat al-sudaniyya-al-siniyya, 105–106.

84 Kheir, “A Successful, Daring and Revolutionary Experiment,” 30–31; Kheir, “Soviet ‘Aid,’” 49–51; Peng & Zhang, “zhandou niandai de zhandouzhige”; Ahmed, Al-’ilaqat al-sudaniyya-al-siniyya, 106.

85 Beverley, Foreigners Under Mao, 169; “Youyi binguan,” Baike.

86 Mina, ‘Arus al-mawja, 59, 143, 284–285.

87 Ibid, 102.

88 Beverley, Foreigners Under Mao, 171.

89 Mina, Hadatha fi baytakhu, 26, 137.

90 “Beijing nuofute heping binguan,” Baike.

91 Hamdi, Iraqi fi al-sin, 44; Beverley, Foreigners Under Mao, 3; Brady, Making the Foreign Serve China, 105.

92 Office of the British Charge d’Affaires (Peking)…Foreign Office Files for China 1957–1966, ref. FO 371/150503.

93 Ibid.

94 Min & Ma, “Zhongguo dui Alabo shijie,” 55.

95 Al-Sudairi, “Among Old Friends.”

96 Ibid; Behbehani, China’s Foreign Policy, 72, 102, 177–178, 239–264.

97 Al-Sudairi, “Among Old Friends.”

98 Ibid; CCTV Français, “Mustafa Safarini.”

99 Beverley, Foreigners Under Mao, 86-87.

100 Al-Durra, Tajrubat al-shuyu’iyya, 153.

101 Ibid, 154; Qabbani, “Thalath bitaqat”; Qabbani, “Oryantiyya”; Qabbani, “Lolita”; Al-’Ajlani, “Hikayat Nizar Qabbani.”

102 Al-Sudairi, “Among Old Friends.”

103 Office of the British Charge d’Affaires (Peking)…Foreign office Files for China 1957–1966, ref. FO371/181038.

104 Ibid.

105 Al-Sudairi, “Among Old Friends.”

106 Al-Rabi’i, “Rahil shaykh al-manafi.”

107 Beverley, Foreigners Under Mao, 169; Brady, Making the Foreign Serve China, 160; Behbehani, China’s Foreign Policy, 48.

108 Beverley, Foreigners Under Mao, 114.

109 Al-Sudairi, “Among Old Friends.”

110 Ibid; Behbehani, China’s Foreign Policy, 33–34, 76–77.

111 Salama ‘Ubayd, Salamah ‘Ubayd, 161.

112 Ibid, 34–37, 59–60, 118, 132–136.

113 Ibid, 10.

114 Zhang, “Hadiran walam yakun ‘ana ba’idan,” 1; “Chairman Mao Receives Delegates,” Peking Review, 3.

115 ‘Ubayd, Al-sharq al-ahmar, 3.

116 Ibid, 194–195, 197.

117 Ibid, 181.

118 Ibid, 86–87, 92.

119 Ibid, 32, 104–118, 131–132.

120 Ibid, 189-191.

121 ‘Ubayd, Allah wal gharib, 25–26.

122 Ibid.

123 His time in Peking University coincided with that of another prominent intellectual, the Syrian poet Abdulmu’in al-Muluhi (1917–2006) who was one of the first scholars to translate Chinese poetry and Vietnamese literature into Arabic. Ahmed, “Abdulmu’in al-Muluhi”; Zhang, “Hadiran walam yakun ‘ana ba’idan,” 1–2.

124 Salama ‘Ubayd, Salamah ‘Ubayd, 137–150. Zhang, “Hadiran walam yakun ‘ana ba’idan,” 2.

125 Liu & et al, Alabo qiaomin zai zhongguo, 212.

126 “(di yi ban) xuyan” in Hanyu alabo cidian; Salama ‘Ubayd, Salamah ‘Ubayd, 110–111.

127 ‘Ubayd, Allah wal gharib, 10–13, 15–16, 17–21, 34–36, 44–45.

128 Ibid, 27–28.

129 “Kitabat ‘anh,” Salamah ‘Ubayd.

130 ‘Ubayd, Allah wal gharib, 70–72.

131 Suleiman, & Jawad, Al-hiwar al-akheer, 24.

132 Ibid, 15.

133 Al-Sudairi, “Hadi al-’Alawi,” 19.

134 Suleiman, & Jawad, Al-hiwar al-akheer, 63.

135 WeChat correspondence with Dr. Ding Long (3 May 2020); Xue, “Hadi al-’Alawi.”

136 Al-’Alawi, Al-mustatrif al-sini, 8.

137 Khayun, “Jalal al-Hanafi.”

138 Ibid; Al-Hanafi, “shay ‘an al-lugha al-siniya,” 68.

139 Khayun, “Jalal al-Hanafi.”

140 Suleiman, & Jawad, Al-hiwar al-akheer, 88–89; Al-’Alawi, Al-mustatrif al-sini, 8, 108–110.

141 Suleiman, & Jawad, Al-hiwar al-akheer, 88.

142 Al-’Alawi, Al-mustatrif al-sini, 9.

143 Ibid, 9, 108.

144 Ibid, 39–42, 45–49.

145 Ibid, 70.

146 Ibid, 62–64, 69–71.

147 Ibid, 66–68.

148 Suleiman, & Jawad, Al-hiwar al-akheer, 130–131.

149 Al-’Alawi, Al-mari wal la mari, 32–33.

150 Al-Samawi, & Al-’Alawi, Hiwar hawla ‘Maotsidong,’ 13–17, 19; Al-’Alawi, Al-mustatrif al-sini, 40.

151 Al-’Alawi, Al-mari wal la mari, 36.

152 Ibid, 103–104; Suleiman, & Jawad, Al-hiwar al-akheer, 56, 58–60.

153 Al-’Alawi, Madarat sufiyya, 8.

154 Al-’Alawi, Al-mari wal la mari, 36.

155 Al-Samawi, & Al-’Alawi, Hiwar hawla ‘Maotsidong,’ 24–27.

156 Ibid, 27–28; Al-’Alawi, Al-mari wal la mari,166.

157 Ibid, 64.

158 Ibid, 65.

159 Ibid, 95, 126.