The Ethiopia–Eritrea rapprochement: highly personalised and less-institutionalised initiative

Abstract

Once a unified state, Ethiopia and Eritrea experienced a catastrophic war. Although deep-rooted economic and political conditions were at work in the background, issues of an improperly demarcated border triggered the 1998–2000 war. During the outbreak both Ethiopia and Eritrea were already emerging from another war. As a result, tens of thousands died, and millions were displaced. The intervention of the international community averted the war. The Organization of African Unity arbitrated the matter, supported by the United Nations, the European Union and the United States. However, disagreement over the implementation of the technical arrangements of the arbitration obstructed the full-scale implementation of the arbitration – leading to a period of ‘no peace, no war’. Both maintained an adamant position, and resuming relations appears impossible unless a change of government takes place. Fortunately, a wave of civil resistance rocked Ethiopia from 2015 to 2018, resulting in national reform in mid-February 2018. This opened the initiative for the resumption of relations. This paper discusses the conditions contributing to the renewal of the Ethiopian–Eritrean ties and the steps taken by both to revise their foreign policy directions that had them in a deadlock for decades. It also identifies risk factors bottlenecking the full-scale normalisation of the rapprochement.

Keywords:

• Ethio–Eritrean
• rapprochement
• institutionalisation
• Badme
• normalising relations

Acknowledgements

We are thankful to the anonymous reviewers from beginning to end. All of the comments and suggestions given to us have been carefully considered and have enriched the document.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Correction Statement

This article has been republished with minor changes. These changes do not impact the academic content of the article.

Notes

1 The United Nations Security Council Resolution no. 1312 (2000) at its 4181st meeting on 31 August 2000.

2 EPLF was founded in 1970 by radical Eritrean nationalists; among them were Ramadan Nur and Isayas Afewereki.

3 This mainly refers to the Red Sea Trading Corporation (RT, which was officially founded in 1994 by the Eritrean government under the corporate umbrella of Hidri Trust. The company is believed to have many secret offshore accounts and to be involved in construction, banking and manufacturing investments. Clapham (2017) argues that The Red Sea Trading Corporation is similar to Endowment Fund for the Rehablitation of Tigray (EFFORT) of TPLF in Ethiopia.

4 According to the US embassy in Asmara, regional powers like Libya, Saudi Arabia, Qatar and UAE reported having offered financial support for anti-Ethiopian activity in Somalia and even in Ethiopia proper. For further information see De Waal (2017).

5 The agreement contains seven articles dealing with the end of the hostility and opening a new era to harness ‘comprehensive cooperation in the political, security, defense, economic, trade, investment, cultural and social fields on the basis of complementarity and synergy’. For further information see the full text of the agreement in Addis Standard, available online at https://addisstandard.com/full-text-of-the-ethio-eritrea-agreement-signed-in-jeddah/.

6 The main insurgent groups among others signed the agreement were the Oromo Liberation Front (OLF), Ginbot-Sebat, Ogaden National Liberation Front (ONLF).

7 Article 3 of the agreement states, ‘The two countries will develop Joint Investment Projects, including the establishment of Joint Special Economic Zones’.

8 Article 51(8) of the FDRE constitution unequivocally stipulates, ‘Federal government) shall formulate and implement foreign policy. It shall negotiate and ratify international agreements’.

9 See the peace agreement signed at Pretoria, South Africa on 2 November 2022. for further information refere to https://www.peaceau.org/uploads/press-release-cessation-of-hostilities-pretoria-2-11-2022.pdf

10 Article 8(2) of the Agreement for Lasting Peace through permanent cessation of hostilities between the government of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia and the Tigray People Liberation Front (TPLF).

11 See article 8 of the same Peace Agreement.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Amare K. Aweke

Amare K. Aweke (PhD) is Lead Researcher and Director General of the Middle East Affairs Research Directorate at the Institute of Foreign Affairs (IFA), Ethiopia. He has served as Assistant Professor of Peace and Security and Director of the Research Affairs Directorate at Dire Dawa University (DDU). He studied both his PhD and MA in Peace and Security Studies at Addis Ababa University (AAU), Institute for Peace and Security Studies (IPSS), and his BA at Mekelle University (MU), Ethiopia. His latest articles include ‘Challenges of Ethiopian Transition: Breakthrough or Brink of Collapse’ African Journal of Governance and Development (2020); ‘One Country – Two Citizenships: The Status of Settlers in BGRS’, Journal of African Identities (2020); and ‘Civil Resistance in Ethiopia: A Historical Development’, African Journal of History and Culture (2021). He can be contacted at [email protected]

Mohammed Seid

Mohammed Seid (PhD) is Senior Researcher at the Institute of Foreign Affairs (IFA), Middle East Affairs Research Directorate, Ethiopia. He has served as Assistant Professor of Peace and Security Studies and Department Chair at Wolayta Sodo University, Ethiopia. He obtained his Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) in Peace and Security Studies at Addis Ababa University, Institute for Peace and Security Studies. Both his MA and BA in History and Heritage Management are from Adama and Haromiya University respectively. He is the author of two books entitled, History of Geta Shrine in South Wollo, Ethiopia: From Its Foundation to 2000 in 2013 and the Sufi-Salafi Interactions in South Wollo, Ethiopia (1991-2017): Competition, Intolerance and Conflict in 2022. He can be contacted at [email protected]