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Abstract
Known for his shrewd and calculating nature, Emperor Hongwu faced a critical challenge concerning regime legitimacy at the beginning of the Ming Dynasty. At that time, scholars generally adopted a non-collaborative attitude while Zhu’s humble origin was despised by the gentry. Using official historical books, intellectuals’ commonplace books, and poetry anthologies of that time, this article demonstrates that Zhu Yuanzhang’s explanation for the validity of the Yuan-Ming transition comes from the perspective of scholars on the Mandate of Heaven, and reveals that Zhu took a series of measures to solve this crisis by obtaining scholars’ support for the Ming court. The textual research in this article, which differs from the focus on policy, law, system, and other perspectives in previous works, offers another approach to the discussion in the field of early Ming Dynasty.
Disclosure Statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes
1 Zhao Yi趙翼, a famous historian of Qing Dynasty, recognized Zhu Yuanzhang’s remarkable ability and wisdom, “精通學業，乃命世雄才” while criticizing his mass murder of ministers after he seized the country. “借諸公臣以取天下，及天下既定，即盡取天下之人而盡殺之，其殘忍實千古所未有.” So he declared Zhu as a compound of sage, hero, and bandit. “蓋明祖一人，聖賢、豪傑、盜賊之性，實兼而有之者也.” See Zhao Yi, “Ming Zu Wen Yi明祖文義,” “Ming Zu Yi Bu Shi Sha De Tian Xia明祖以不嗜殺得天下,” in Nian Er Shi Zha Ji Jiao Zheng廿二史劄記校證, ed. Wang Shumin王樹民 (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1984), 738–42, 836.
2 Farmer, Zhu Yuanzhang and Early Ming Legislation, 8–9.
3 Wade, “Engaging the South,” 578–638.
4 Chen, “A Tentative Analysis of the Slaughter,” 50–67.
5 Ma, “Legitimacy as a Limit of Absolute Power,” 1–22.
6 Qian Mu钱穆, Zhongguo Xueshu Sixiangshi LuncongⅥ 中國學術思想史論叢六 [Collected Essays on the History of Scholarly Thought in China Ⅵ] (Beijing: Sanlian shudian, 2009), 86–91.
7 Chen Gaohua陳高華, “On the Relationship Between Zhu Yuanzhang and the Yuan Dynasty論朱元璋與元朝的關係,” Xueshu Yuekan學術月刊 (Academic Monthly), no. 4 (1980): 13–18.
8 Xie Guian謝貴安, “From Zhu Yuanzhang’s Orthodox View of His Yuan Policy從朱元璋的正統觀看他對元蒙的政策,” Journal of Central China Normal University華中師範大學學報, no. 1 (1994): 88–92.
9 Yang Yongkang楊永康, “Zhu Yuanzhang’s Theory in the Replacement of Yuan Dynasty by Ming and His Belief in Manifest Destiny朱元璋的元明易代觀及其天命論,” Nankai Xuebao南開學報 (Nankai Journal), no. 5 (2015): 70–79.
10 Edward L. Farmer, “The Social Integration of the Founding Emperors of the Ming Dynasty: The Orthodox Concept as the Function of Authority,” in Orthodoxy in Late Imperial China, ed. Kwang-Ching Liu (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), 103–25.
11 Farmer, Zhu Yuanzhang and Early Ming Legislation, 40–46.
12 Robinson, “Controlling Memory and Movement,” 503–24.
13 Robinson, In the Shadow of the Mongol Empire, 129–57.
14 Chan, “The ‘Song’ Dynasty Legacy,” 91–133; “A Reappraisal of the Origin,” 71–103.
15 Song, “Share and Rule,” 28–60.
16 Brook, “Nine Sloughs,” 27–58.
17 Mencius孟子, “Li Lou Zhang Ju Shang 離婁章句上,” in Si Shu Zhang Ju Ji Zhu四書章句集註, ed. Zhu Xi朱熹 (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2011), 262.
18 Chenji陳基, “Xi Xia Yong Nian Gong Xun De Shi Xu西夏永年公勛德詩序,” in Yi Bai Zhai Gao夷白齋稿, Vol. 20, ed. Chen Ji (Shanghai: Wenyuange Siku Quanshu文淵閣四庫全書), vol. 1222: 0288a.
19 Zhang Jia張佳, “A Study of the Yuan Adherents with Han Ethnic Background in the Early Ming Period 明初的漢族元遺民,” The Journal of Ancient Civilizations 古代文明8, no. 1 (2014): 66.
20 Liu, Orthodoxy in Late Imperial China, 103–05.
21 Ming Taizu shilu明太祖實錄 [The Veritable Records of Zhu Yuanzhang] (Taipei: History and Philology Institute of the Academica Sinica, 1962), Vol. 33: 581.
22 Zhang Tingyu張廷玉, Mingshi明史 [The Official History of the Ming Dynasty] (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1974), Vol. 2, “Taizu Benji 2太祖本紀二”: 21.
23 Mingshi, Vol. 2, “Taizu Benji 2”: 24, 36; Ming Taizu Shilu, Vol. 148: 2330, Vol. 206: 3078; Song Ne宋訥, “Chu Zhao Chi Fu初詔敕符,” in Xi Yin Ji Fu Lu 西隱集附錄 (Wenyuange Siku Quanshu文淵閣四庫全書), Vol. 1225: 0922a.
24 Qian Bocheng錢伯城, Yuzhi Dagao Sanbian御製大誥三編 [The Great Warnings Part Three·Xiu Cai Was Cut Off the Fingers秀才剁指], in Quan Ming Wen全明文, ed. Qian Bocheng and Wei Tongxian (Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing House, 1992), 702.
25 Dong zhongshu described the relationship between the monarch and ministers by using Five Elements (wuxing五行). In brief, the theory indicated that earth, one of the Five Elements, must be loyal to the Heaven from a moral perspective. Thus, he proposed that ministers should serve their emperor as the link between earth and Heaven. “土之事天竭其忠，故五行者，乃孝子、忠臣之行也 … 事君，若土之敬天也。” Dong Zhongshu董仲舒, “Wu Xing Zhi Yi五行之義,” in Chun Qiu Fan Lu Yi Zheng 春秋繁露義證, ed. Su Yu蘇與, Zhong Zhe 鐘哲 (Zhonghua Book Company, 1992), 321–22.
26 “The ministers should be willing to commit suicide, rather than to serve other monarch. This is the critical ethics and morality.” 臣之事君，有死無貳，此人道之大倫也See Sima Guang司馬光, “Hou Zhou Ji Er後周記二,” in Zi Zhi Tong Jian資治通鑑 [History as a Mirror], ed. Sibu Beiyao四部備要 (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1989), Vol. 291: 3557.
27 Xiao Qiqing蕭啓慶, “The Multiple Political Choices of the Literati in the Yuan-Ming Transition: Case of the Multiethnic Jinshi元明之際士人的多元政治抉擇—以各族進士為中心,” Historical Inquiry 臺大歷史學報32 (2003): 77–138.
28 “Hua-Yi Zhi Bian華夷之辨” means the distinction between Hua 華 and Yi 夷 in the field of blood, geography, and etiquette. “Hua華”, also known as “Hua Xia華夏” refers to the Han people who are usually farming, the primary lifestyle in Central China. “Yi夷”, also known as “Yi Di夷狄”, refers to the nomadic people of the steppe with their relatively developing culture. Whenever the rule of the Han nationality is faced with serious threat, such as invasion, “Hua Yi zhi bian” becomes a vital slogan for the resistance of Han nationality (e.g. the famous saying “the Central State occupied the interior in order to control the Yi and Di. The Yi and Di occupied the exterior in order to serve the Central State.” 中國屬內以制夷狄,夷狄屬外以奉中國).
29 Xu Heng許衡, “Jun Ren He Tang Ti He Nei Ci Tang Ji郡人何瑭題河內祠堂記,” in Lu Su Yi Shu魯齋遺書, Vol. 14 (Shanghai: Wenyuange Siku Quanshu文淵閣四庫全書).
30 Hao Jing郝經, “Shi Wu時務,” in Ling Chuan Ji陵川集 [Literary Collection of Ling Chuan], Vol. 19, ed. Hao Jing (Taipei: Shangwu Yinshu guan, 1986), 211.
31 Xu Qian許謙, “He Xian Shi Jing Wei Qing Chu Jiangxi Can Zheng Qi賀憲使敬威卿除江西參政啟,” in Bai Yun Ji白雲集, Vol. 3 (Shanghai: Wenyuange Siku Quanshu文淵閣四庫全書).
32 Liu Jun劉俊, “The Character, Cause and Influence of the Concept of ‘Hua Yi Zhi Bian’ in the Yuan Dynasty元代“華夷之辨”的特質、緣由及影響,” Social Science Front社會科學戰線, no. 4 (2018): 61–66.
33 Zheng Yu鄭玉, Chun Qiu Jing Zhuan Que Yi春秋經傳闕疑, Vols. 9, 11, 13 (Shanghai: Wenyuange Siku Quanshu文淵閣四庫全書).
34 Xiao Qiqing蕭啓慶, “The Multiple Political Choices of the Literati in the Yuan-Ming Transition: Case of the Multiethnic Jinshi元明之際士人的多元政治抉擇—以各族進士為中心,” Historical Inquiry 臺大歷史學報32 (2003): 77–138.
35 The term “Semu people” or “Semuren” 色目人means “people of varied categories” who came from central Asia and Europe. See Lipman, Familiar Strangers, 34; Mote, Imperial China: 900–1800, 490.
36 Xiao Qiqing蕭啓慶, Yuan Dai Jinshi Ji Kao元代進士辑考 (Taipei: History and Philology Institute of the Academica Sinica, 2012), 5.
37 Ibid., 29–30.
38 Farmer, Zhu Yuanzhang and Early Ming Legislation, 7.
39 Ma Zhiyuan, a dramaturge in Yuan Dynasty, had been a grassroots official for more than twenty years. Huang Gongwang only got the position of scribe. Dai Biaoyuan lived for thirty years in seclusion. For the most extensive biography, see Song Lian宋濂, “Yin Yi Zhuan隱逸傳,” in Yuanshi元史 [The Official History of the Yuan Dynasty] (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company 1976), Vol. 199: 4473; Zuo Dongling左東嶺, “Enforcing the Tao and Keeping the Tao: Generation and Transition of Literati’s Life Mode in the Yuan and Early Ming Dynasties行道與守道：元至明初文人人生模式的生成與轉換,” Literature, History, and Philosophy 文史哲377, no. 2 (2020): 39–50.
40 The representatives of recluses in the period of Yuan-Ming transition are Wang Meng王蒙 (1298–1385), Ni Zan倪瓚 (1301–74), Dai Liang戴良 (1317–83), Wang Feng王逢 (1319–88), Ding Henian 丁鶴年 (1335–1424), etc. See Xu Zifang徐子方, Yuan Dai Wen Ren Xin Tai Shi元代文人心態史 (Tianjin:Tianjin Renmin Chubanshe, 2015), 214–34.
41 Jiang Xiaoguang蔣曉光, “Li Ji Miao yu Zhan Baishe: Qin zhi Zhengtong de Shuli ji Jieshou Yanjiu立極廟與斬白蛇：秦之正統的樹立及接受研究 [Construction of Celestial Pole Temple and Chopping White Snake: A Study on the Establishment and Acceptance of Qin’s Orthodoxy],” Huaqiao Daxue Xuebao (zhexue shehui kexueban) 華僑大學學報(哲學社會科學版) (Journal of Huaqiao University (Philosophy and Social Sciences Edition)), no. 1 (2019): 121–28; Chen, “Legitimation Discourse and the Theory of the Five Elements in Imperial China,” Journal of Song-Yuan Studies 44 (2014): 325–64.
42 Mingshi, Vol. 1, “Taizu Benji 1”: 1.
43 The original text in Chinese was “此天子氣也，應在金陵，十年後有王者起其下，我當輔之,” in Xiang Dushou項篤壽, “Liji Tiao劉基條,” in Jin Xian Bei Yi 今獻備遺, Vol. 2 (Shanghai: Wenyuange Siku Quanshu), Vol. 0453: 0516b.
44 Zhu Yuanzhang, “Royal Account of a Dream御制紀夢,” in Ji Lu Hui Bian紀錄彙編, Vol. 5, ed. Shen Jiefu沈節甫 (Shanghai: Shangwu Yinshu Guan, 1938).
45 Danjō Hiroshi, 永楽帝——華夷秩序の完成 (Beijing: Social Sciences Academic Press, 2015), 41.
46 Ming Taizu Shilu, Vol. 26: 0402.
47 Tan Qian談遷, Guo Que國榷 [An Evaluation of the Events of Our Dynasty] (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1958), 350.
48 Chen Pan陳槃, Gu Chenwei Yantao Jiqi Shulu Jieti 古讖緯研討及其書錄解題 (Taipei: Guoli Bianyi Guan, 1993), 5.
49 Fu Fengxiang傅鳳翔, Huang Ming Zhao Ling 皇明詔令 [Collections of the Imperial Edict], Vol. 1 (Ming Dynasty Jiajing Original Photocopy明嘉靖刻本影印本).
50 Qian Mu錢穆, Zhongguo Xueshu Sixiangshi LuncongⅥ 中國學術思想史論叢六 [Collected Essays on the History of Scholarly Thought in China] (Beijing: Sanlian Shudian, 2009), 103.
51 Ming Taizu Shilu, Vol. 39: 783.
52 Ming Taizu Shilu, Vol. 25: 374; Wang Shizhen王世貞, “Yu Yuan You Zhu與元幼主,” in Yan Shan Tang Bie Ji弇山堂別集, Vol. 85 (Shanghai: Wenyuange Siku Quanshu), Vol. 0410: 0299b.
53 Gao Dai高岱, “Beifa Zhongyuan北伐中原,” in Hong You Lu鴻猷錄, Vol. 5 (Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing House, 1992), 88.
54 Ming Taizu Shilu, Vol. 53: 1046.
55 The Ancestral Instructions: Ming Taizu Instructions皇明寶訓·明太祖寶訓 (Taipei: History and Philology Institute of the Academica Sinica), Vol. 5: 395.
56 Ming Taizu Shilu, Vol. 53: 1040.
57 Mingshi, Vol. 1, “Taizu Benji 1太祖本紀一”: 24.
58 Ibid., 21.
59 The original text in Chinese was “如蒙古、色目，雖非華夏族類，然同生天地之間，有能知禮義，願為臣民者，與中國之民撫養無異.” See Gao Dai高岱, “Beifa Zhongyuan北伐中原,” in Hong You Lu鴻猷錄, Vol. 5 (Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing House, 1992), 88.
60 Farmer, “Patriarchy in One Country,” 4.
61 Song Lian宋濂, Yuanshi元史 [The Official History of the Yuan Dynasty] (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company 1976), Vol. 81, “Xuanju 1選舉一”: 2030.
62 Chen Gaohua陳高華, “Yuan Shi Zuan Xiu Kao《元史》纂修考,” Historical Research歷史研究, no. 4 (1990): 115–29.
63 Chenji陳基, “Ji Gu Ping Zhang Rong Lu Zhang Gong Wen祭故平章榮祿張公文,” in Quan Yuan Wen全元文, ed. Li Xiusheng李修生 (Nanjing: Phoenix Publishing House, 2004), Vol. 50: 481.
64 Luo Zhonghui羅仲輝, Ming Shi Lun Cong明史論叢 (Beijing: China Social Sciences Press, 1997), 40–45.
65 Robinson, In the Shadow of the Mongol Empire, 133.
66 The original text in Chinese were “九十三年之治，華風淪沒，彝道傾頹.” See Zhu Yuanzhang朱元璋, “Yu Zhi Da Gao御製大誥 [The Great Warnings],” in Siku Quanshu Supplementary續修四庫全書 (Shanghai Classics Publishing House, 2002), Vol. 862: 243.
67 Lv Bi呂毖, “Ming Chao Xiao Shi明朝小史 [The Historiette of the Ming Dynasty] Vol. 2,” in Siku Jinhuishu Congkan 四庫禁毀書叢刊 (Beijing: Beijing Publishing House, 1997), Vol. 19.
68 The original text in Chinese was “徵辟四方，宿儒羣集闕下，隨其所長而用之,” in Mingshi, Vol. 137, “Liezhuan 25列傳第二十五”: 3960.
69 Bei Qiong貝瓊, “Zhong Du Ji中都集”, in Qingjiang Beixiansheng Wenji清江貝先生文集 [Anthology of Bei Qiong], Vol. 27 (Sibu Congkan Chubian Yingyin 四部叢刊初編影印明初刊本).
70 Ming Taizu Shilu, Vol. 26: 0402.
Additional information
Notes on contributors
Xu Han
Xu Han is a Ph.D. candidate in College of Literature and Journalism at Central South University. Her research interests are history of literature in Yuan and Ming dynasties, aesthetics of literature and art, etc. She has published 5 peer-reviewed papers and presented 4 invited student talks at international conferences.
Xuanjun Yan
Xuanjun Yan is a professor in College of Literature and Journalism at Central South University (CSU). He received his Ph.D. degree from Zhejiang University in 2002 and moved to CSU. His research focuses on Jin, Yuan and Ming Dynasties literature and cultural history. He was and is in charge of 6 research projects, and has published 30 peer-reviewed articles.