British Diplomacy and the Decline of CENTO

Abstract

The Central Treaty Organization (CENTO) is considered the failed West-inspired alliance of the Cold War that was dissolved in 1979 after the fall of the Shah. Britain found the regional member states, Iran, Turkey and Pakistan, unwilling to focus on a common deterrent strategy or assign forces to this alliance. For two decades Pakistan wanted to turn CENTO against India, but London resisted any policy that could offend New Delhi. Eventually Whitehall admitted that this organization was nothing more than “a paper tiger” and, in accordance with the 1974 Defence Review, opted for military disengagement from the alliance. British policy was based on a realist estimate: CENTO did not face the prospect of Russian aggression. Furthermore, no military contingency planning existed for the cooperation of CENTO with NATO.

Notes

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2. Détente and its Legacy (special issue) Cold War History, vol. 8, no. 4 (2008); Melvyn P. Leffler, For the Soul of Mankind: The United States, the Soviet Union and the Cold War (New York: Hill and Wang, 2007).

3. Cihat Göktepe, “The Forgotten Alliance? Anglo-Turkish Relations and CENTO, 1959–1965” Middle Eastern Studies, vol. 35, no. 4, (October 1999): 103–129.

4. Article 5, North Atlantic Treaty, April 4, 1949: “The Parties agree that an armed attack against one or more of them in Europe or North America shall be considered an attack against them all and consequently they agree that, if such an armed attack occurs, each of them, in exercise of the right of individual or collective self-defense recognized by Article 51 of the Charter of the United Nations, will assist the Party or Parties so attacked by taking forthwith, individually and in concert with the other Parties, such action as it deems necessary, including the use of armed force, to restore and maintain the security of the North Atlantic area. Any such armed attack and all measures taken as a result thereof shall immediately be reported to the Security Council. Such measures shall be terminated when the Security Council has taken the measures necessary to restore and maintain international peace and security,” available at http://www.nato.int/docu/basictxt/treaty.html (accessed March 1, 2009).

5. Ramsbotham to FCO, March 12, 1974, FCO 9/2216 The National Archives (TNA), Kew, Surrey.

6. The Problems of CENTO, April 7, 1964, FO 371/175613 TNA.

7. Chiefs of Staff Committee, Military Implications of Pakistan's Decision to leave the Commonwealth and SEATO and possible withdrawal from CENTO, December 1, 1972, pp. A3–A5, DEFE 5/195 TNA.

8. Secretary of State for the Commonwealth to Secretary of Defence; Defence Expenditure in Cyprus, December 21, 1967, “Top Secret,” pp. 1–2, DEFE 13/539 TNA.

9. Secretary of State for Defence to the Foreign Secretary, April 17, 1967, DEFE 13/539 TNA.

10. R. M. Hastie-Smith (MoD) to R. Parsons (FO), April 25, 1967, DEFE 13/539 TNA.

11. Secretary of State for Defence, Defence Expenditure in Cyprus, May 1, 1967, pp. 3, 6; DEFE 13/539 TNA.

12. Sykes to Tripp, “Secret,” August 14, 1969, FCO 17/800 TNA.

13. Cradock to Tripp, August 14, 1969, p. 2, FCO 17/800 TNA.

14. FCO to Sarell, August 21, 1969, FCO 17/800 TNA.

15. Ibid.

16. British Policy towards CENTO, summary, undated, FCO 17/800 TNA.

17. FCO to Sarell, August 21, 1969, FCO 17/800 TNA.

18. The Problems of CENTO, April 7, 1964, p. A7, FO 371/175613 TNA.

19. The Problems of CENTO, April 7, 1964, p. A4, Annex A to COS 12/73, FO 371/175613 TNA.

20. Wright to Smith, “Secret–UK Eyes Alpha,” October 20, 1972, FCO 8/1828 TNA.

21. Chiefs of Staff Committee, Review of the Year in CENTO, December 1, 1972, p. A2, Annex A to COS 12/73, DEFE 5/195 TNA.

22. 24th Meeting of the CENTO Military Committee, Item 5- CENTO Air Matters, p. 1, DEFE 5/195 TNA.

23. The deployment and roles of RAF units in Cyprus and commanded from Cyprus now and post April 1976, “Secret,” November 23, 1975, p. D3, DEFE 68/90 TNA.

24. 23rd Meeting of the CENTO Military Committee, Item 6-CENTO Communications System, undated, pp. 1–2, DEFE 5/195 TNA.

25. Cable to Private Secretary, May 1972, undated, FCO 8/1828 TNA.

26. Tesh to Cable, “Secret,” June 5, 1972, FCO 8/1828 TNA.

27. Tesh to Cable, “Secret,” June 5, 1972, FCO 8/1828 TNA.

28. White to Goulden, “Secret,” June 16, 1972, FCO 8/1828 TNA.

29. Goulden to Goodall, “Secret–UK Eyes Alpha,” November 16, 1972, FCO 8/1828 TNA.

30. Political Implications of the curtailment of British Defence commitments outside NATO, Note by the Secretary of MoD, “Secret–UK Eyes Alpha,” May 21, 1974, p. 31, DEFE 25/221 TNA.

31. Goulden to Goodall, “Secret–UK Eyes Alpha,” November 16, 1972, FCO 8/1828 TNA.

32. Turkey's attitude to NATO and CENTO, September 11, 1974, FCO 9/2216 TNA.

33. Review of the International Situation, CENTO Ministerial meeting, April 18–20, 1978, Brief No. 4, p. 17, FCO 37/2074 TNA.

34. Sotiris Rizas, “Atlanticism and Europeanism in Greek foreign and Security Policy in the 1970s,” Southeast European and Black Sea Studies, vol. 8, no. 1 (March 2008): 51–66; Rizas, Sotiris, “Managing a Conflict Between Allies: United States Policy Towards Greece and Turkey in Relation to the Aegean Dispute, 1974–76,” Cold War History, vol. 9 (forthcoming 2009).

35. Non-NATO Commitments, Note by the MoD Secretary, “Secret,” June 5, 1974, p. C6, DEFE 25/222 TNA.

36. Note by the Foreign and Commonwealth Office, “Secret,” June 12, 1974, DEFE 25/223.

37. United Kingdom Defence Policy, Part VII-Conclusion, Annex B, undated, p. B1, DEFE 25/221 TNA.

38. British presence in Cyprus after the Defence Review, “Secret,” p. 3, DEFE 68/90 TNA.

39. Non-NATO Commitments, Note by the Foreign and Commonwealth Office, “Secret,” 12 June 1974, DEFE 25/223 TNA.

40. British presence in Cyprus after the Defence Review, undated, p. 4, DEFE 68/90 TNA.

41. Cyprus Background Note, undated, DEFE 68/90 TNA.

42. Record of Sir Michael Cary's meeting with Sir Peter Ramsbotham, July 9, 1975, DEFE 68/90 TNA.

43. Ramsbotham to FCO, March 12, 1974, FCO 9/2216 TNA.

44. Phillips to Wright, March 15, 1974, FCO 9/2116 TNA.

45. The deployment and roles of RAF units in Cyprus and commanded from Cyprus now and post April 1976, “Secret,” November 23, 1975, p. D1, DEFE 68/90 TNA.

46. British presence in Cyprus after the Defence Review, undated, p. 2, DEFE 68/90 TNA.

47. Non-NATO Commitments, Note by the Foreign and Commonwealth Office, “Secret,” June 12, 1974, p. 2, DEFE 25/223 TNA.

48. Ibid, p. 6, DEFE 25/223 TNA.

49. Item 2. Political Guidance for Military Planning, Appendix 2 to Annex A, undated, p. A2–1, AIR 8/2798 TNA.

50. UK Support for CENTO, Annex B, undated, p. B-2, AIR 8/2798 TNA.

51. Changes in RAF Organization since the 1974 Defence Review; Briefing for CENTO PMDG, July 18, 1977, p. 12, AIR 8/2799 TNA.

52. Callaghan to UK embassy Ankara, Tehran, Islamabad, November 29, 1974, FCO 9/2216 TNA.

53. Reception for Pakistan National Defence College: Exercise Shahbaz 1977, May 2, 1977, AIR 8/ 2799 TNA.

54. An RAF aircraft for the PMDG Ankara tour 1977 and RAF participation in CENTO exercises, November 10, 1976, AIR 8/2798 TNA.

55. Item 5. CENTO Military Communications, Appendix 5 to Annex A, undated, p. A5–1, AIR 8/2798 TNA.

56. UKPMD to CAS, October 13, 1976, p. 3, AIR 8/2798 TNA.

57. CAS to UKPMD, October 25, 1976, AIR 8/2798 TNA.

58. CAS to UKPMD, January 18, 1977, p. 3, AIR 8/2798 TNA.

59. CAS to Air Secretary, May 9, 1977, AIR 8/2799 TNA.

60. Background: Agenda Item X: Adoption of Resolutions, Political Guidance for Military Planning, Brief, No. 6, undated, p. 4, FCO 37/1823 TNA.

61. Personality notes; CENTO ministerial meeting, Tehran, May 13–15, 1977, Brief No. 7, FCO 37/1823 TNA.

62. Record of meeting with Mr Frank Judd, Foreign and Commonwealth Office at 10:15 am on March 21, 1977, p. 3, FCO 37/1824 TNA.

63. Record of meeting with Mr MS Weir, Assistant Under-Secretary of State, Foreign and Commonwealth Office at 10:55 am on March 21, 1977, p. 2, FCO 37/1824 TNA.

64. Ibid., p. 4, FCO 37/1824 TNA.

65. Record of meeting with MR John Tomlinson, MP Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State, Ministry of Overseas Development, at 12:00 noon on March 21, 1977, p. 1, FCO 37/1824 TNA.

66. Record of a meeting with the Right Hon Dr David Owen, MP Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs at 3:10 pm on March 21, 1977, p. 2, FCO 37/1824 TNA.

67. Ibid., FCO 37/1824 TNA.

68. Ibid., p. 3, FCO 37/1824 TNA.

69. Record of a meeting with General Alexander Haig, pp, 1–2, FCO 37/1824 TNA.

70. Record of a meeting with the Right Hon Mr Fred Mulley MP, Secretary for Defence at 4:30 pm on March 21, 1977, FCO 37/1824 TNA.

71. Record of a meeting with Admiral of the Fleet Sir Edward Ashmore at 4:00 pm on March 21, 1977, pp. 1–2, FCO 37/1824 TNA; CENTO ministerial meeting, Tehran, 13–15 May 1977, Background: Pakistan Bilateral Relations, Brief No. 9, pp. 3–4, FCO 37/1823 TNA; Supplementary Brief: CENTO ministerial meeting, Tehran, May 13–15, 1977: Pakistan, pp. 2–3, FCO 37/1823 TNA.

72. CENTO Ministerial meeting (London, April 19–20, 1978); Pakistan bilateral, Background, p. 2, FCO 37/2074 TNA.

73. CENTO ministerial meeting: Tehran, May 13–15, 1977, Brief No. 5d FCO 37/1823 TNA.

74. Gilett to Charlesworth, January 27, 1977; notes on paragraphs 2 and 9, FCO 9/2677 TNA.

75. Soviet attitude to CENTO, Brief No. 4, FCO 9/2677 TNA.

76. Note of a discussion during luncheon given by the Hon Mr Warren Christopher, Deputy Secretary at the State Department on March 25, 1977, pp. 1–3, FCO 37/1824 TNA.

77. CENTO Press conference held on April 20, 1978, p. 20, FCO 37/2074 TNA.

78. CENTO 25th Meeting of the Council of Ministers, London, April 18–20, 1978; Brief for the UK Delegation, p. 2, FCO 37/2074 TNA.

79. Review of the International Situation, CENTO Ministerial meeting, April 18–20, 1978, Brief No. 4, FCO 37/2074 TNA.

80. Ibid., p. 6, FCO 37/2074 TNA.

81. Ibid., p. 6, FCO 37/2074 TNA.

82. Simpson-Orlebar to Weir, August 24, 1977, FCO 9/2677 TNA.

83. Cyprus and US/Turkish Relations, CENTO Ministerial meeting, April 18–20, 1978, Brief No. 9, p. 3, FCO 37/2074 TNA.

84. Parvin Merat Amini, “A Single Party State in Iran, 1975–1978. The Rastakhiz Party—the Final Attempt by the Shah to Consolidate his Political Base,” Middle Eastern Studies, vol. 38, no. 1 (January 2002): pp. 131–168.

85. “The Crescent of Crisis,” Time, January 15, 1979.

86. For theories on alliance making, see Glenn H. Snyder, Alliance Politics (London: Cornell University Press, 1997), pp. 350–371; Stephen M. Walt, The Origins of Alliances (London: Cornell University Press, 1987), pp. 2–49.

87. Strobe Talbott, “CENTO: A Tattered Alliance,” Time, September 18, 1978.