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Original Articles

The occupier's dilemma: Problem collaborators

Pages 228-240 | Published online: 29 Aug 2017
 

ABSTRACT

Every occupying power recruits collaborators but potential recruits vary with respect to their acceptance by occupied populations. That matters because the legitimacy of the occupation regime facilitates securing the war aims of the occupying power. This article surveys the different reasons why collaborators often elicit popular contempt, a response which may inspire insubordination and resistance, to produce a conceptual stencil of the optimal rather than the ideal collaborator. Limited pools of potential recruits mean that occupying powers may not be able to recruit ideal candidates. The resulting conceptual stencil can serve a checkoff list for evaluating the utility of potential collaborators.

Notes

1. Hugo Service, Germans to Poles: Communism, Nationalism and Ethnic Cleansing After the Second World War (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2013), 17.

2. István Deák, Europe on Trial: The Story of Collaboration, Resistance, and Retribution During World War II (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 2015), 40.

3. Henri Dethlefsen, “Denmark and the German Occupation: Cooperation, Negotiation or Collaboration?” Scandinavian Journal of History, vol. 15, no. 1–2 (1990): 193–206; Gerard Hirschfeld, “Collaboration and Attentism in the Netherlands, 1941–41” Journal of Contemporary History, vol. 16, no. 3 (1981): 467–486.

4. Zaki Chehab, Inside the Resistance: The Iraqi Insurgency and the Future of the Middle East (New York: Nation Books, 2005), 91.

5. Alan L. Kolata, “Before and After Collapse: Reflections on the Regeneration of Social Complexity,” in Glenn A. Schwartz and John J. Nichols, eds., After Collapse: The Regeneration of Complex Societies (Tucson: The University of Arizona Press, 2006), 211.

6. Catherine Lu, “Justice and Moral Regeneration: Lessons from the Treaty of Versailles,” International Studies Review, vol. 4, no.3 (2002): 8.

7. Ibid., 9.

8. Todd Shackelford and David M. Buss, “Betrayal in Mateships, Friendships, and Coalitions,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, vol. 22, no. 11 (1996): 1162.

9. Ryan Gingeras, Fall of the Sultanate: The Great War and the End of the Ottoman Empire, 1908–1922 (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2016), 262, 269.

10. Ibid., 266.

11. Ibid., 270.

12. Ibid., 274.

13. Ibid., 274.

14. Ibid., 275.

15. Alan Palmer, The Decline and Fall of the Ottoman Empire (New York: Fall River Press, 1992), 300.

16. Spencer M. Di Scala, Italy: From Revolution to Republic, 1700 to the Present (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 2004), 292.

17. Howard McGaw Smyth, “The Command of the Italian Armed Forces in World War II,” Military Affairs, vol. 15, no. 1 (1951): 51.

18. Norman Kogan, “The Italian Action Party and the Institutional Question,” The Western Political Quarterly, vol. 6, no. 2 (1953): 282–284.

19. Philip Morgan, The Fall of Mussolini (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2008) Susan Jacobs, “Living with The Enemy: ‘Once upon a Time There Was Prato Nuovi,’” European Studies, vol. 21 (2005): 198.

20. Brent L. Sterling, Do Good Fences Make Good Neighbors? What History Teaches Us About Strategic Barriers and International Security (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2009), 235.

21. Charles Williams, Pétain: How the Hero of France Became a Convicted Traitor and Changed the Course of History (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), 249–250; Martin S. Alexander, The Republic in Danger: General Maurice Gamelin and the Politics of French Defence, 1933–1940 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 200.

22. Olivier Wieviorka, Orphans of the Republic: The Nation's Legislators in Vichy France, George Holoch, trans. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009), 74–81.

23. Ibid., 110.

24. Rebecca West, The Meaning of Treason (New York: The Viking Press, 1947).

25. Ibid., 3, 6, 43, 70, 128.

26. Ibid., 28.

27. Ibid., 100.

28. Ken Flower, Serving Secretly: Rhodesia's CIO Chief on Record (Johannesburg: Galago, 1987).

29. Martin Meredith, Our Votes, Our Guns: Robert Mugabe and the Tragedy of Zimbabwe (New York: Public Affairs, 2002), 42.

30. William Finnegan, A Complicated War: The Harrowing of Mozambique (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992), 32–33.

31. Gilbert M. Khadiagala, Allies in Adversity: The Frontline States in Southern African Security, 1975–1993 (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 2007), 85.

32. Sue Onslow, “Freedom at Midnight: A Microcosm of Zimbabwe's Hopes and Dreams at Independence, April 1980,” The Round Table, vol. 97, no. 398 (2008): 741.

33. Luise White, The Assassination of Herbert Chitepo (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2005), 84.

34. Alfred W. McCoy, Policing America's Empire: The United States, The Philippines, and the Rise of the Surveillance State (Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press, 2009), 96.

35. Ibid., 110–111, 144–146, 229.

36. Stuart Creighton Miller, “Compadre Colonialism,” The Wilson Quarterly, vol. 10, no. 3 (1986): 99–105.

37. David Steinberg, “Jose A. Laurel: A ‘Collaborator’ Misunderstood,” The Journal of Asian Studies, vol. 24, no. 4 (1965): 651–665; Geoffrey Sawer, “The Return of the Puppets in South-East Asia,” The Australian Outlook (June 1947): 8–12.

38. Paul M. Atkins, “Dakar and the Strategy of West Africa,” Foreign Affair, vol. 20, no. 2 (1942): 358–366.

39. Lucy Berman, Muslim Brotherhoods and Politics in Senegal (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971), 55–56.

40. Ruth Gino, French Colonialism Unmasked: The Vichy Years in French West Africa (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2006), 174–175.

41. Elizabeth Schmidt, Cold War and Decolonization in Guinea, 1946–1958 Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 2007), 36–46.

42. Lansine Kaba, “Guinean Politics: A Crucial Historical Overview,” The Journal of Modern African Studies, vol. 15, no. 1 (1977): 26.

43. Schmidt, Cold War and Decolonization, 41–42.

44. John Marcum, “Sekour Toure & Guinea,” Africa Today, vol. 6, no. 5 (1959): 5–8.

45. Elliott West, The Contested Plains: Indian, Goldseekers, and the Rush to Colorado (Lawrence, KS: University of Kansas Press, 1988), 281–287.

46. John H. Moore, “Cheyenne Political History, 1820–1894,” Ethnohistory, vol. 21, no. 4 (1974): 343.

47. Annette Baker Fox. The Power of Small States: Diplomacy in World War II (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1959), 102–103.

48. Oddvar K. Hoidal, Quisling: A Study in Treason (Oslo: Norwegian University Press, 1989), 40–41.

49. Ibid., 340–341.

50. Ibid., 423.

51. Ibid., 553.

52. Ibid., 473–474, 554–556.

53. Ibid., 694–695.

54. Ibid., 705–706.

55. Timothy J. Henderson, A Glorious Defeat: Mexico and its War with the United States (New York: Hill and Wang, 2007), 168.

56. Karl Schmitt, “Church and State in Mexico: A Corporatist Relationship,” The Americas, vol. 40, no. 3 (1984): 349–376.

57. Henderson, A Glorious Defeat, 14.

58. Schmitt, “Church and State in Mexico,” 360.

59. Abdul Salam Zaeff, My Life with the Taliban (New York: Columbia University Press, 2010) 48, 261.

60. Kenneth Katzman, “Afghanistan: Politics, Elections, and Government Performance,” Washington, DC: Congressional Record Service, May 6, 2010, 8–9.

61. Sasha Polakov-Suransky, The Unspoken Alliance: Israel's Secret Relationship with Apartheid South Africa (New York: Pantheon, 2010), 162–163.

62. Hillel Cohen, Good Arabs: The Israeli Security Agencies and the Israeli Arabs, 1948–1967 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2010), 117–121.

63. Ibid., 232–233.

64. Esmail Nashif, Palestinian Political Prisoners: Identity and Community. (London: Routledge, 2008), 119.

65. Caroline Elkins, Imperial Reckoning: The Untold Story of Britain's Gulag in Kenya (New York: Henry Holt, 2005), 62–90.

66. Daniel Branch, Defeating Mau Mau, Creating Kenya: Counterinsurgency, Civil War, and Decolonization (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 148–207.

67. Michael Burleigh, Small Wars, Faraway Places: Global Insurrection and the Making of the Modern World, 1945–1965 (New York: Penguin Books, 2013), 362–363.

68. Michela Wrong, It's Our Turn to Eat: The Story of a Kenyan Whistle-Blower (New York: Harper, 2009) 110, 112.

69. Ibid, 288.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

John Hickman

John Hickman ([email protected]) is a professor of political science in the Department of Government and International Studies at Berry College in Rome, Georgia, where he teaches comparative politics and international relations. He holds both a PhD in political science from the University of Iowa and a JD from Washington University, St. Louis. Hickman is the author of Selling Guantanamo (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2013) and Space is Power: The Seven Rules of Territory (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2016).

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