Iranian approach to deterrence: Theory and practice

ABSTRACT

Conventional wisdom holds that Iran has no formal doctrine of deterrence. Certain deterring agents have been identified, but these are incomplete and have not been organized as a whole to fully depict Iran's approach to deterrence. This article brings forward original Iranian literature in Farsi and presents Iran's definition and doctrine of deterrence: Altering the thought process of an enemy using inconspicuous threats, in order to remove external threats to Iran's security and independence. Understanding Iran's theory of deterrence is important both to policymakers and academics given the strategic interaction with Iran in recent years and in the future.

Acknowledgment

The author wishes to express his deep appreciation to Dr. Dmitry Adamsky for his insightful comments and challenging questions.

Notes

1. Peter Jones, “Learning to Live with a Nuclear Iran,” The Nonproliferation Review 19, no. 2 (2012): 197–217; Bernd Kaussler, “‘From Engagement to Containment: EU–Iran Relations and the Nuclear Programme, 1992–2011,” Journal of Balkan & Near Eastern Studies 14, no. 1 (2012): 53–76; Michael Mandelbaum, “How to Prevent an Iranian Bomb,” Foreign Affairs 94, no. 6 (2015): 19–24; Andrew Parasiliti, “Iran: Diplomacy and Deterrence,” Survival 51, no. 5 (2009): 5–13; Michael Segall, “Iran vs. the West: Endgame?” Jerusalem Issue Briefs 13, no. 28 (2013): 1–10; Alex S. Wilner, “Apocalypse Soon? Deterring Nuclear Iran and Its Terrorist Proxies,” Comparative Strategy 31, no. 1 (2012): 18–40.

2. See, for example, Yoel Guzansky and Avner Golov, “The Rational Limitations of a Nonconventional Deterrence Regime: The Iranian Case,” Comparative Strategy 34, no 2 (2015): 169–84.

3. Shahram Chubin, “‘Extended Deterrence and Iran,” Strategic Insights, 8 (2009): 37–48.

4. Moshen M. Milani, “Tehran's Take: Understanding Iran's US Policy,” Foreign Affairs 88 (2009): 46–62.

5. Galia Golan, Russia and Iran: A Strategic Partnership? (London: Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1998).

6. Sean Goforth, Axis of Unity: Venezuela, Iran and the Threat to America (Washington, DC: Potomac Books, 2012).

7. Lawrence Freedman, Deterrence (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2004).

8. Carolyn C. James, “Iran and Iraq as Rational Crisis Actors: Dangers and Dynamics of Survivable Nuclear War,” Journal of Strategic Studies 23 (2000): 52–73. See also Guzansky and Golov, ‘The Rational Limitations.”.

9. Gholam-Reza Mohammadi, “Umagh-e Estratejik-e Jomhouri-ye Islami-ye Iran Ba Negah Be Cheshmandaz-e 20 Saleh [Iran's Strategic Depth Based on the 20 Year Outlook],” Payegah-e Etelaaresani Khamenei.ir [Khamenei.ir News Agency], (2009), farsi.khamenei.ir/others-article?id=9199 (accessed February 23, 2015) [Farsi].

10. See, for example, Brendan Brown, “God or the Bomb,” The Humanist, 71, no. 1 (2011): 8–10.

11. Shmuel Bar, “God, Nations and Deterrence: The Impact of Religion on Deterrence,” Comparative Strategy 30 (2011): 437.

12. Henning P. Duus, “Deterrence and a Nuclear Armed Iran,” Comparative Strategy, 30 (2011): 134–53; Mohebat Ahdiyyih, “Ahmadinejad and the Mahdi,” Middle East Quarterly, 15 (2008): 27–36.

13. Ofira Seliktar, “Assessing Iran's Nuclear Rationality: The ‘Eye of the Beholder’ Problem,” Journal of the Middle East and Africa, 2 (2011): 188–206.

14. Ahmad Aghajani and Mahmoud Asgari, “Alzamha-ye Nazari Terahi-ye Algou-ye Islami-Irani Pishraft Dar Houze-ye Defaii [The Theoretical Needs for Planning an Advanced Islamic-Iranian Model in the Field of Defense],” Faslnameh Rahbord Defaii [Quarterly Defense Strategy], 31 (2011): 1–30 [Farsi].

15. Kamran Taremi, “Iranian Strategic Culture: The Impact of Ayatollah Khomeini's Interpretation of Shiite Islam,” Contemporary Security Policy 35, no. 1 (2014): 3–25.

16. For example, the following two sources have been translated from English into Farsi: John Baylis, James J. Wirtz, and Colin S. Gray, eds., Strategy in the Contemporary World (Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press 2012); Amir Lupovici, “The Emerging Fourth Wave of Deterrence Theory: Toward a New Research Agenda,” International Studies Quarterly 54, no. 3 (2010): 705–732. In addition, publications made at the annual Herzliya Conference in Hebrew have been translated into Farsi, such as Elham Shoushtari-Zadeh, “Negahi Be Mehvarhaye Mozoui Konferanse Herzliya 2013 [An Examination of the Subjects Discussed at the 2013 Herzliya Conference],” The International Studies and Research Institute Abrar Moaser Tehran, 2013.

17. There is also the possibility that since Iran is undergoing a learning process, it hasn't yet reached the point of discussing rationality.

18. Hossein Pour-Ahmadi and Masoud Rezaii, “Arziyabi va Tabiin-e Ebad-e Hamleh-ye Nezami-ye Ehtemali Be J.I.Iran [Evaluation of the Potential Military Attacks on Iran],” Faslnameh Rahbord-e Defaii [Journal of Strategic Defense], 43 (2013): 165–205 [Farsi].

19. Lawrence G. Potter, “Sufis and Sultans in post‐Mongol Iran,” Iranian Studies 27, no. 4 (1994): 77–102.

20. Ervand Abrahamian, “The 1953 Coup in Iran,” Science & Society 65, no. 2 (2001): 182–215.

21. Ghorbani Arsolan, Noshin Sheikh, and Akram Ghadimi, “Barersi Rahbordi-ye Siasat-e Khareji-ye Amrika Dar Kurdestan-e Iraq va Amniat-e Mali-ye Jomhouri-ye Islami-ye Iran [An Examination of American Foreign Policy in Kurdestan–Iraq and Iran's National Security], Faslnameh Rahbord [Strategy Quarterly] 62 (2012): 55–82 [Farsi]; Mejhgan Ghorbani, “Esteghrar Seper Defaa Moushaki-ye Amrika sar Khalij-e Fars va Tathir-e An bar Amniat-e Meli Jomhouri-ye Islami-ye Iran [American Missile Defense Batteries Located in the Persian Gulf and their Effect on Iranian Security],” Faslnameh-ye Rahbord-e Defaii [Journal of Strategic Defense] 38 (2012): 2–30 [Farsi]; Morad-Ali Sodoughi, ‘T”athir Hadethe 11 Septambar Bar Siasat-e Defaii-Amniati-ye Jomhouri-ye Islami-ye Iran [The Effects of 9/11 on Iran's Defense-Security Policy],” Faslnameh Motaleat Rahbordy [Strategic Studies Quarterly] 17–18 (2002–2003): 711–19 [Farsi]; Rahbar Talai Khor and Abdolreza Bagheri, “Payman-e Rahbordi-ye Amrika-Afghanistan va Amniat-e Meli-ye Jomhouri-ye Islami-ye Iran [The Strategic Alliance between the USA and Afghanistan, and Iran's National Security],” Faslanameh-ye Rahbordi-e Defaii [Journal of Strategic Defense] 41 (2013): 94–124 [Farsi]; Yousef Karimi, “Barersi-ye Avamel-e Bazdarandeh-ye Amrika dar Taaroz be Manafe-ye Amniati-ye J.I.Iran dar Khalij-e Fars dar Seh Daheh-ye Gozashteh Dar Bad Nirouhaye Daryaii [Examining American Naval Deterring Agents Threatening Iranian Security Interests in the Persian Gulf, in the Past Three Decades],” Faslnameh-ye Rahbord-e Dariaii [Journal of Naval Defense] 46 (2014): 45–78 [Farsi].

22. Masoud Akhvan Kazemi and Azizi Pervaneh, “Kurdestan-e Iraq; Hartland Jeopolitiki-ye Israel [Kurdestan Iraq; Israel's Geopolitical Heartland],” Rahbord [Strategy] 60 (2011): 141–68 [Farsi].

23. Karami Jehangir, “‘Mohit-e Amniati-ye Khavarmianeh va Siasat-e Khareji-ye Jomhouri-ye Islami-ye Iran [Security in the Middle East and Iran's Foreign Policy], Faslnameh Siasat-e Defaaii [Defense Policy Quarterly] 52–53 (2005): 29–58 [Farsi].

24. Mahmoud Asgari and Ahmad Aghajani, “Taharokat-e Azerbaijan va Rahbord-e Defaii-ye Iran [Azerbaijan's Actions and Iran's Defense Strategy],” Mahnameh Etalaat Rahbordi [Strategic Information Monthly] 19 (2012): 25–48 [Farsi].

25. BBC News, “Kidnapped Iran Soldiers Freed in Pakistan by Militants,” www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-26888975 (accessed April 4, 2015).

26. Goforth, Axis of Unity.

27. Kamran Taremi, “Iranian Strategic Culture.”

28. “Who Is Fighting Whom in Syria,” The New York Times, September 30, 2015, www.nytimes.com/2015/10/01/world/middleeast/the-syria-conflicts-overlapping-agendas-and-competing-visions.html?_r=0 (accessed May 30, 2016).

29. Hossein Dorri Nogourani, “Negareshi Mabnaii Be Siasatgozari Dar Gholamrou Bonyeh-ye Defaii-ye Jomhouri-ye Islami-ye Iran [An Examination of Policy-Making Regarding Physical Defense of the Islamic Republic of Iran],” Faslnameh Rahnaameh Siasatgozari [Doctrine of Policy Making] 2 (2010): 194 [Farsi].

30. “Sand Cheshmandaz Iran 1404 [Outlook for Iran for the Year 1404],” in Payegah-e Etela Resani-ye Dolat [Government Information Portal], www.dolat.ir/PDF/20 years.pdf (accessed April 4, 2015); Nader Saed, “Chaharchub Tadvin Algou-ye Islami-Irani va Janbeha-ye Defaii-ye An: Rahyafti Hoghoughi [A Framework for Defining an Islamic-Iranian Model and its Defensive Aspects: A Legal Strategy],” Faslnameh Rahbord Defaii [Quarterly Defense Strategy] 32 (2011): 1–32 [Farsi].

31. Bazdarandagi-ye Hame-ye Janebeh. For a full list of terms in Farsi used in this article and their translation to English, see the Appendix.

32. Government of Iran, “Ghanon Barnameh-ye Panjsaleh-ye Panjom-e Tosee-e Jomhouri-ye Islami-ye Iran,” in Iran University of Medical Science, legal.iums.ac.ir/uploads/ghanune-barname_panjom.pdf (accessed April 4, 2015).

33. Abbas Masli-Nezhad, ‘Siasat Gozari Hastehi-ye Iran Dar Shareyet-e Bazdarandagi-ye Mantaghei [Iran's Nuclear Policy in Terms of Regional Deterrence],” Markaz Bainalmalaly Motaleat Solh [International Peace Studies Centre] (2011), peace-ipsc.org/fa/?p=1242-more-1242 (accessed February 22, 2015) [Farsi].

34. Scott D. Sagan, “Why Do States Build Nuclear Weapons? Three Models in Search of a Bomb,” International Security 21, no. 3 (1996–1997): 54–86.

35. Bazdarandagi-ye Tadafoi.

36. Kayhan Barzegar, “Bazdarandagi-ye Tadafoi Dar Tangeh-ye Hormoz [Defensive Deterrence in the Strait of Hormuz],” Pajouheshgah Motaleat-e Estratejik Khavarmianeh [Center for Scientific Research and Middle East Strategic Studies], khabarfarsi.com/ext/3044186 (accessed February 23, 2015) [Farsi].

37. Nader Saed, “Bazdarandagi-ye Norm: Mabani va Karbost-e Defaii-ye An [Soft Deterrence: Basic Principles and its Defensive Properties],” Faslnameh Rahbord Defaii [Quarterly Defense Strategy] 28 (2010): 87–110 [Farsi].

38. I find no corresponding term in Iranian literature.

39. Kamran Taremi, “Iranian Strategic Culture.”

40. Defa-e Hame-ye Janebeh.

41. Yahii Rahim-Safavi and Mahdi Jamshidi, “Tathir Vizhegiha-ye Jeopolitiki Ashayer Bar Amniat-e Jomhouri-ye Islami-ye Iran [The Effect of Iran's Unique Geopolitical Tribal Features on National Security],” Motaleat-e Defaii Estratejik [Strategic Defense Research Quarterly] 31–32 (2008): 76–96 [Farsi].

42. See, for example, an analysis of Israel's lack of strategic depth: Yigal Allon, “Israel: The Case for Defensible Borders,” Foreign Affairs, 55 (1976), www.foreignaffairs.org/articles/israel/1976-10-01/israel-case-defensible-borders> (accessed July 22, 2015).

43. Gholam-Reza Mohammadi, “Umagh-e Estratejik-e.”

44. Umagh Estratejik.

45. Umagh Houzeh-ye Nafouz.

46. Central Intelligence Agency, ”The World Factbook: Iran,” July 23, 2015, www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ir.html (accessed July 24, 2015).

47. Ghassem Torabi and Ali-Reza Rezaii, “Osoul va Mehvarha-ye Rahnameh-ye Daryaii-ye Jomhouri-ye Islami-ye Iran va Aghdamha-ye Motaghabel-e Amrika [The Basic Principles of Iran's Naval Doctrine and American Counter Activity],” Faslnameh Rahbord Defaii [Quarterly Defense Strategy] 32 (2011): 33–67 [Farsi]; Ali-Akbar Rostami and Yaghob Zahadi, “Tabiin Jaygah-e Nezami-ye Darya dar Rahbord-e Defaii-ye J.I.Iran va Era'e Rahkarhaye Tahakok-e Alzamhaye An [Defining the Military Role of the Sea in Iran's Strategic Defense and presenting its Solutions to Iran's Necessities],” Faslnameh-ye Rahbord-e Defaii [Journal of Strategic Defense] 42 (2013): 32–66 [Farsi].

48. Nogourani, “Negareshi Mabnaii Be Siasatgozari.” The Farsi term is Pedafand-e Gheyre Amel. While most terms containing the word defense use the term derived from Arabic influence on Persian, Defa'a, here the Persian term Pedafand is used, though they both have the same meaning. Ardoshir Mohammadi and Mohammad Taghi Partovi, “Roykardhaye Pedafand-e Gheyr-e Amel va Tathir-e Anha bar Amalkard AJA dar Janghaye Ayande [Methods of Passive Defense and their Effect on Iran's Military in Future Wars],” Faslnameh-ye Rahbord-e Defaii [Journal of Strategic Defense] 44 (2013): 116–48 [Farsi].

49. Hossein Bagheri and Mohsen Savizi, “Chegunegi Farhangsazi Pedafand-e Gheyre Amel Dar Beyne Farmandehan va Modiran Sazman-e Basij Mostazafan [Cultural Education of Passive Defense as Seen by Basij Commanders and Senior Personnel],” Majleh-ye Siasat-e Defaii [The Journal of Defense Policy] 74 (2011): 151 [Farsi]; Mahdi Bigdalou, ”Tathir-e Pedafand-e Gheyre Amel Bar Ghodrat-e Norm-e Jomhouri-ye Islami-ye Iran [The Effect of Passive Defense on Iran's Soft Power],” Faslnameh Rahbord Defaii [Quarterly Defense Strategy] 34 (2011): 145–79 [Farsi].

50. Jaafar Movahedi-Nia, Osoul va Mobani-ye Pedafand-e Gheyre Amel [The Basic Principles of Passive Defense]. Tehran: Markaz Barnamehrizi va Taalif Ktabha-ye Dorsi [Tehran: The Center for Planning and Publication of Educational Books, 2009] [Farsi]. Bigdalou, ”Tathir-e Pedafand-e Gheyre.”

51. Semira N. Nikou, “Timeline of Iran's Nuclear Activities,” in United States Institute of Peace, The Iran Primer, iranprimer.usip.org/resource/timeline-irans-nuclear-activities (accessed April 4, 2015). See also AEOI, in Atomec Energi Organization of Iran, www.aeoi.org.ir/Portal/Home/Default.aspx (accessed 4 April 2015).

52. Gerald M. Steinberg, “Deterrence Instability: Hizballah's Fuse to Iran's Bomb,” Jerusalem Viewpoints, 529 (2005): 1–7.

53. Freedman, Deterrence.

54. Målfrid Braut-Hegghammer, ”Revisiting Osirak,” International Security 36 (2011): 101–32.

55. Leonard S. Spector and Avner Cohen, “Israel's Airstrike on Syria's Reactor: Implications for the Nonproliferation Regime,” Arms Control Today 38, no. 6 (2008): 15–21.

56. The Middle East Media Research Institute, “Iranian Army Twitter Account, Iranian Army-Affiliated Blog Report: IRGC Troops at Lebanon–Israel Border,” MEMRI, Special Dispatch No. 5915 (2014), www.memri.org/report/en/print8351.htm#_edn1 (accessed November 28, 2015).

57. See, for example, the concern of Israeli Prime Minister Netanyahu regarding the presence of hundreds of Iranian soldiers on Israel's northern border in October 2015, www.haaretz.co.il/news/politics/1.2750131 [Hebrew] (accessed November 28, 2015).

58. Jang Na-Motagharen / Na-Motaaref.

59. Michael Connell, “Iran's Military Doctrine,” in The Iran Primer, edited by Robin Wright (Washington, DC: Institute of Peace, 2010).

60. Steven R. Ward, “The Continuing Evolution of Iran's Military Doctrine,” Middle East Journal, 59 (2005): 559–76. See also Saff Magazine, Hemayat Magazine, and research carried out at the IRGC College of Command in Tehran.

61. Assaf Fadi, “The Islamic Republic of Iran,” Défense Nationale et Sécurité Collective, 63 (2007): 123–27.

62. Abu-Mohammad Asgar-Khani and Mohammad-Reza Hagh-Shenas, “Tahdidhay-e Mantaghehi va Rahbord-e Taslihati-Amniati-ye Jomhouri-ye Islami-ye Iran [Regional Threats and Iran's Ammunitions and Security Strategy],” Faslnemeh Rahbord Defaii [Quarterly Defense Strategy] 33 (2011): 69–99 [Farsi].

63. Business Insider, “Watch Iran Attack a Model US Aircraft Carrier with Speed Boats,” in Business Insider, www.businessinsider.com/r-iran-stages-war-games-boats-hit-mock-up-us-ship-2015-2 (accessed March 24, 2015). Ahmad Jaafari, Siavesh Nosrat-Panah, and Afshin Soheili Arshadi, “Terahi-ye Algou-ye Rahbordi-ye Trabari-ye Chabek dar Jang-e NaHamagoun [Designing a Strategic Model for Swift Movement in Multifaceted Warfare],” Faslanameh-ye Rahbord-e Defaii [Journal of Strategic Defense] 42 (2013): 104–34 [Farsi].

64. Chubin, “Extended Deterrence and Iran.”

65. Ayatollah Ali Khamenei, “#Israel's Security Will Not be Ensured Whether There Will Be an Iran Deal or Not, November 27, 2014,” Khamenei.ir, July 20, 2015, www.facebook.com/www.Khamenei.ir/videos/893779304028338/ (accessed May 30, 2016).

66. Hamid-Reza Ghavam-Maleki, “Naghsh-e Moushakha Dar Rahbord-e Bazdarandagi-ye Jomhouri-ye Islami-ye Iran [The Role of Missiles in Iran's Deterrence Strategy],” Faslnameh Rahnaameh Siasatgozari [Doctrine of Policy Making] 2 (2011): 97–118 [Farsi].

67. National Intelligence Estimate, “Iran: Nuclear Intentions and Capabilities,” The Office of the Director of National Intelligence, www.dni.gov/files/documents/Newsroom/Reports%20and%20Pubs/20071203_release.pdf (accessed February 10, 2016).

68. Ray Takeyh, Hidden Iran: Paradox and Power in the Islamic Republic (New York: Holt, 2006).

69. Sandra Mackey and Scott Harrop, The Iranians: Persia, Islam and the Soul of a Nation (New York: Penguin Books, 1998).

70. Fadi, “The Islamic Republic of Iran.” 123–27.

71. Seyed Mohammad Javad Ghorbi, “Algou-ye Islami-Irani-ye Pishraft Va Alzamha-ye Defaii Va Amniati-ye An [An Islamic-Iranian Model and Its Defense and Security Necessities],” Mahnameh Etalaat-e Rahbordi [Strategic Information Monthly] 108 (2012): 55 [Farsi].

72. Ahmad Torkan, “‘Barersi va Tab'iin-e Molahezehaye Defaii va Amniati dar Gharardadhaye enteghal-e Naft va Gaz dar Manatagheh [Examining and Defining the Defense and Security aspects of Treaties regarding Transferring Oil and Gas in the Region],” Faslnameh-e Rahbord-e Defaii [Journal of Strategic Defense] 36 (2012): 66–104. [Farsi].

73. Asgar-Khani and Hagh-Shenas, “Tahdidhay-e Mantaghehi.”

74. Gholam-Reza Mohammadi, ‘Umagh-e Estratejik-e.”

75. Vehdat.

76. Seyed Reza Naghib-Alsadat, ‘Tahdidha-ye Resanehii-ye Gharb va Naghs-e Basij Dar Raf-e Tahdidha [The Threat of Western Media and the Role of the Basij in EliminatingSsuch Threats],” Faslnameh Motaleat-e Basij [Basij Research Quarterly] 48 (2010): 84–119 [Farsi]; Seyed Reza Naghib-Alsadat, Amir Hayat-Moghadam, and Amir Ghodsi, “Barersi-ye Naghsh va Jaygah-e Aghvam Dar Sakhtar-e Defaii-ye Keshvar [An Examination of the Role of Tribes in Iran's Defense Structure],” Faslnameh Rahbord Defaii [Quarterly Defense Strategy] 40 (2012): 73–98 [Farsi].

77. Defa Moghades.

78. Moustafa Khodsiani and Ismail Khanahmadi, “Barersi Naghsh-e Rouhiye dar Defa-e Moghades va Jang-e Ayandeh [Examining the Role of Sprituality in Holy Defense and Future Warfare],” Faslnameh-ye Rahbord-e Defaii [Journal of Strategic Defense] 42 (2013): 68–101 [Farsi].

79. Jihad Fakhreddine and Travis Owen, “Iranians See Nuclear Deal as a Turning Point,” Gallup, 2015, http://www.gallup.com/poll/186710/iranians-nuclear-deal-turning-point.aspx?utm_source=tagrss&utm_medium=rss&utm_campaign=syndication (accessed February 10, 2016).

80. Rahim-Safavi and Jamshidi, “Tathir Vizhegiha-ye Jeopolitiki.”

81. Bagheri and Savizi, “Chegunegi Farhangsazi.”

82. Naghib-Alsadat, “Tahdidha-ye Resanehii-ye Gharb.”

83. Jehangir, “Mohit-e Amniati-ye Khavarmianeh.”

84. Amin Ghiyour, “Avamel-e Bain Almalali Hamkari-ye Iran va Rusieh va Tathir-e An bar Amniat-e Meli-ye J.I.Iran [International Aspects of Iranian-Russian Cooperation and Its Affect on Iran's National Security],” Faslnameh-ye Rahbordi-ye Defaii [Journal of Strategic Defense] 46 (2014): 149–78 [Farsi]; Amalgeraii Motaghi, Zohrah Chi Poustin, Said Mojaradi, and Hayat Moghaddam Amir, “Amalgeraii Rahbordi dar Ravabet-e Jomhouriye Islamiye Iran va Rusieh [Strategic Aspects of Iran's Relationship with Russia],” Faslname-ye Rahbordi-ye Defaii [Journal of Strategic Defense] 46 (2014): 117–47 [Farsi].

85. Diplomasi-e Defaii.

86. Mahmoud Asgari, “Diplomasi-ye Defaii va Bazdarandegi; Motaleeh-ye Moredi-ye J.I.Iran [Defensive Diplomacy and Deterrence; A Research on Iran],” Faslnameh-ye Diplomasi-ye Defaii [Journal of Defensive Diplomacy] 3 (2011): 71–104 [Farsi].

87. Jehangir, “Mohit-e Amniati-ye Khavarmianeh.”

88. Saed, “Bazdarandagi-ye Norm”, 98.

89. Kayhan Barzegar, “Balance of Power in the Persian Gulf: An Iranian View,” Middle East Policy 17 (2010): 74–87.

90. Fanavarihay-e Norm.

91. Saed, “Bazdarandagi-ye Norm”; Ghorbi, “Algou-ye Islami-Irani-ye Pishraft.”

92. Bazdarandagi-ye Norm.

93. Khodatkaii.

94. Joanna Tidy, “The Social Construction of Identity: Israeli Foreign Policy and the 2006 War in Lebanon,” Global Society 26 (2012): 535–56.

95. Asgar-Khani and Hagh-Shenas, “Tahdidhay-e Mantaghehi.”; Farhad Ghassemi, “Alzamat-e Teoretik Bazdarandagi-ye Mantaghei-ye Jomhouri-ye Islami-ye Iran [Theoretical Needs for Iranian Regional Deterrence],” Faslnameh Bainalmalali Ravabet-e Khareji [Quarterly of Foreign Affairs] 3 (2009): 55–83 [Farsi]; Nogourani, “Negareshi Mabnaii Be Siasatgozari.”

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Guy Freedman

Guy Freedman ([email protected]) is a graduate student at the Lauder School of Government, Diplomacy and Strategy at the Interdisciplinary Center (IDC), Herzliya. For the past three years, he has been the project manager at the Research Group on American Public Opinion toward Israel and his research areas cover American politics and foreign policy, as well as the strategic relationships between the U.S., Israel, and Iran.