Teachers’ use of mobile devices in suburban under-resourced secondary schools in Nepal

Abstract

This study examined how secondary teachers used mobile devices for teaching and learning activities in under-resourced secondary schools in Napal. Twelve secondary teachers from three schools in the suburbs of one Himalayan district in Nepal were interviewed using qualitative research methods. The information gathered through observation of their classes supplemented the information gathered through interviews. Findings show that using mobile devices is productive for developing digital content, getting access to internet resources, and delivering lessons in the classroom. The degree of teachers’ technological, pedagogical, and content knowledge was reflected in how they used their mobile devices for information access, language games, dictionaries, and specific learning applications. In the absence of desktop computers and laptops, this study demonstrated how mobile devices improved teachers’ teaching and learning activities. Teachers could exhibit a greater level of proficiency in using technology if they received training on its usage in teaching and learning, and administrative support.

Keywords:

• smartphone
• instructional design
• case study
• digital materials
• TPACK

Introduction

While there is a lack of a well-established definition of m-learning because of the rapid evolution of mobile learning, multiple meanings of the term refer to the use of content, and technology in mobile arrangements with learners and teachers (Crompton, 2013; Hamm et al., 2014; Kukulska-Hulme, 2009). In a broader sense, m-learning refers to learning that occurs anytime and anywhere with technological devices in both formal and informal learning spaces (Ally, 2009; Parajuli, 2016). Much discussion on m-learning is based on a restricted sense of mobile learning which assumes that it is learning with wireless digital devices, including smartphones, tablets, and MP3 players (Kukulska-Hulme & Shield, 2008). However, the portability of mobile devices and flexibility in their use in formal and informal learning have received greater importance in recent years. Because the availability of mobile devices with an internet connection provides access to authentic information anytime and anywhere, m-learning offers learners opportunities to leverage their experiences in their personalised learning (Alshurideh et al., 2023). Despite the enthusiasm, teachers should have an adequate level of technological and pedagogical knowledge to recognise and utilise the potential of m-learning (Alam, 2023). M-learning requires teachers to understand both positive and negative aspects because the use of m-learning platforms does not guarantee that students use them for educational purposes. Also, teachers need to be capable of understanding the growing use of mobile devices in learning and the associated challenges of managing students’ mobile devices in the classroom.

The trend of using mobile technologies in teaching and learning is rapidly increasing globally, including in Nepal. There has been phenomenal growth in mobile phone access in the last two decades. Smartphone subscriptions have swelled to over eight billion worldwide and 38.21 million in Nepal in 2019 (Taylor, 2023). In the same year, Nepal had a population of 28.83 million, which means 9.38 million phone subscribers (approximately 24.5%) had more than one subscription. The growing popularity of these devices indicates that smartphones are extensively used in daily activities. They have become familiar to teachers and students, particularly in urban areas. Smartphones, often used as an alternative to the computer, readily became the best means for emergency remote learning in the COVID-19 pandemic situation (Castellanos-Reyes et al., 2022). In the absence of physical classroom learning, teachers in Nepal used smartphones to reach out to their students and support their learning during the crisis (Rana, 2022). Scholars have emphasised the use of smartphones as a teaching and learning tool to enhance students’ learning in flexible ways (Anshari et al., 2017; Castellanos-Reyes et al., 2022; González et al., 2017; Klímová, 2018). We have observed teachers’ use of smartphones in various learning activities such as reading online books, creating videos, recording conversations, and capturing photos. We have also observed teaching activities such as showing pictures and playing videos relevant to their students’ lessons in the classroom.

Nepal’s education policies and plans have heavily emphasised the integration of ICT into education. The use of ICT in instructional activities has drawn considerable attention from government bodies in Nepal. Unfortunately, none of the educational policies in ICT have articulated how to manage funding for developing ICT infrastructure in schools and equipping teachers with ICT skills (Laudari, 2019; Rana, 2018; Rana et al., 2020). Instead, existing educational policy documents mention the need for increased budgets for the implementation of ICT in education programmes (Rana et al., 2019). Although there is a lack of funding for the development and implementation of ICT education programmes, the growing use of mobile devices in formal and informal learning urges teachers to be prepared for the changing context of teaching and learning. In the absence of the government’s negligible effort to use digital technology including mobile devices in school education, teachers’ efforts to integrate the devices into teaching and learning seem to be crucial to transform existing educational practices into more innovative teaching and learning. It was evident during the COVID-19 pandemic that when all schools were shut down and unable to create online learning in the absence of ICT infrastructure, the teachers who had technological and pedagogical knowledge created alternative learning systems by using their mobile devices.

The value of digital technologies, especially mobiles, was highly regarded after the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic in Nepal (Adhikari & Rana, 2022; Giri & Rana, 2022). During the pandemic, the government of Nepal also circulated a notice for schools to identify whether or not their students had computers and smartphones. Thus, a smartphone was recognised as an educational tool for remote teaching after the outbreak of COVID-19. However, there needs to be documented evidence of how teachers use their smartphones in their teaching and learning in secondary schools in Nepal and what challenges they face in using their devices. To understand teachers’ use of mobile devices and their experiences of challenges in using the devices in teaching and learning, we searched relevant literature. As we have used the technological, pedagogical, and content knowledge (TPACK) framework, which is described by Koehler et al. (2007), as a lens to analyse teachers’ use of mobile devices in their teaching and learning activities, we have organised the review of literature based on the tenets of the framework in the following sections.

TPACK for m-learning

In this study, teachers’ use of mobile devices is viewed through the lens of the TPACK framework (Koehler et al., 2007). In particular, their experiences and understanding of mobile device use in teaching and learning can be interpreted in terms of technological knowledge (TK), pedagogical knowledge (PK), and content knowledge (CK). Educators have embraced TPACK as a potential framework for the development of teacher education programmes whereas researchers have extensively used it as a lens to analyse the use of various technologies in instructional activities (Voogt et al., 2013). It has become a critical model for understanding how educators have reflected the tenets of the framework in their practices of technologies (Chai et al., 2011). For example, Wong et al. (2015) used TPACK to create a language learning environment enabling teachers to utilise mobile technologies and develop their TK, PK, and CK in an integrated mechanism. Phillips (2017) emphasises that it is essential to understand the context-specific potential of TPACK and the factors associated with teachers’ TPACK development and use. Scholars (Niess, 2011; Rana et al., 2022; Willermark, 2017) underscore the potential of TPACK to analyse teachers’ learning trajectories and how they implement their TPACK.

Technological knowledge

Teachers can make use of smartphones to enable students to engage in self-directed learning activities by giving them access to e-books, project-based assignments, course websites, and lesson-based quizzes (Siebert, 2019). For example, English teachers can distribute vocabulary learning tasks to the students, and students can use a dictionary app on their mobile device that helps them develop English vocabulary (Klímová, 2018) or participate in game-based language learning (Soclo et al., 2022). Specifically designed smartphone applications enhance students’ engagement in learning (González et al., 2017), especially when students need immediate learning support beyond the classroom (Kim & Park, 2019). Rana (2023) emphasises the need for developing teachers’ TK to enable them to understand the affordances of digital technology and leverage the potential of mobile technologies into instructional activities. However, teachers having TK does not guarantee that they can use mobile devices to teach lessons (Alam, 2023). The absence of proper policies on the use of mobile devices in schools and a lack of support for teachers to manage the devices in the classroom limited the extent to which teachers were able to obtain an adequate level of TK (Nikolopoulou et al., 2023). Teachers need to be provided with an appropriate environment to leverage their experiences in using mobile devices in teaching and learning (Wong et al., 2015). However, González et al. (2017) emphasises that teachers’ enthusiasm for learning and implementing mobile technologies is more important, not only for transforming their pedagogies but also for being able to explore the potential of mobile devices in overall educational practices.

Smartphones provide teachers and students with unlimited opportunities for sharing ideas and communicating synchronously and asynchronously (Xiao et al., 2020). In particular, smartphones have become handy educational tools because of their portability, convenience, and ability to perform multitasks and gather information from various sources in an environmentally-friendly manner (Anshari et al., 2017). In the context of Nepal, where many teachers might not be able to afford expensive laptops and desktop computers, a smartphone can be a potential device to promote students’ learning (Sankhi & Sandnes, 2020) as most students have access to one (Parajuli, 2016). However, the lack of broadband internet connections in rural schools and expensive mobile data can become major barriers to teachers’ initiatives to implement m-learning (Rana, 2023; Rana & Poudel, 2024). In addition, teachers’ perceived challenges, such as limited resources, technical problems, poor administrative support, and a lack of training limit the use of mobile devices (Nikolopoulou, 2020). However, with technological advancements, educators, have realised the need for technology integration into teaching and learning activities to prepare students for the competitive worldwide market (Siebert, 2019). Teachers, as described by Koehler et al. (2007), need to have technological competency to utilise available technologies, including mobile devices, in their planning and delivery of lessons.

Pedagogical knowledge

The increasing use of mobile technology has transformed the ways of working, communicating, sharing, teaching, and learning (Ally, 2009). Access to smartphones, tablets, iPads, notebooks, electronic book readers, and MP3 players has eased the ways of teaching and learning (Shonola et al., 2016). Moreover, the availability of mobile technology has enabled both teachers and students to create online learning communities where students share their learning problems, and teachers provide support to them (Bernacki et al., 2020). Punithavathi and Geetha (2020) contend that the rapid growth of smart mobile devices has transformed digital learning practices, making them the primary devices of m-learning. However, Rana (2023) argues that many teachers in the rural context of underdeveloped countries like Nepal, where they do not have broadband internet, might be unable to understand the potential of smartphones in instructional activities. An absence of relevant training and a lack of administrative support for teachers to learn to use mobile devices in teaching and learning seem to be barriers to the pedagogical practices of mobile devices (Nikolopoulou, 2020). Particularly in situations where schools lack proper policies to equip teachers with technological and pedagogical knowledge, teachers struggle to learn and integrate mobile devices into instructional activities (Rana & Poudel, 2024). However, scholars (González et al. (2017; Paudel & Rana, 2022) argue that, if teachers have the motivation to learn to use mobile technologies in teaching and learning, they can use open internet sources to develop their pedagogical knowledge.

M-learning offers a new generation of e-learning with wireless portable mobile devices in the broader context of digital learning (Georgiev et al., 2004; Iqbal & Bhatti, 2020). Viberg et al. (2021) explained that m-learning has three different phases: learning on devices, learning outside classes, and the mobility of the learners across different learning contexts. M-learning is underpinned by different learning theories, including behaviourist learning theories, cognitive learning, constructivist learning, situated learning, problem-based learning, sociocultural theory, collaborative learning, and conversational learning theory (Keskin and Metcalf (2011). Kearney et al. (2018) argued that traditional pedagogical practices are inadequate for m-learning because m-learning demands independent learning. They emphasised that m-learning pedagogy is highly situated, authentic, adaptive, responsive, personalised, interactive, collaborative, seamless, and social. Koehler et al. (2013), therefore, argued that it is essential to equip teachers with TPACK, enabling them to transform traditional pedagogies into modern learning with digital technologies, including mobile devices. Rana (2023) iterates that teachers need to be proactive in learning to use digital technologies in their instructional activities and develop their TK and PK.

Content knowledge

The growth of mobile technology in the 21^st century has facilitated the promotion of e-learning practices (Al-Furaih & Al-Awidi, 2020; Chen et al., 2010; Pegrum, 2014). Chen et al. (2010) accentuates that mobile technology provides learners with seamless learning opportunities by extending learning spaces, navigating to different contexts, locations, social groups, topics, and technologies, and transcending traditional classroom-based learning. Pegrum (2014) argues that unlike the desktop computer era when the internet was available in a fixed location, a smartphone has integrated the real and virtual world as people carry the internet with them and use it for entertainment, information, and communication. However, teachers face challenges in identifying authentic content on the internet as online sources are questioned for the trustworthiness of content (Sophonhiranrak & Promsaka Na Sakonnak, 2017). They have difficulties sourcing suitable and quality information online (Ekstrand et al., 2020), as they are further challenged by the prevalence of deep fake content (Blankenship, 2021). Oz (2014) suggests teachers first learn the concept of using mobile devices in daily life and then in teaching and learning. González et al. (2017) argue that teachers need to be capable of recognising genuine content on the internet and using it in teaching the curriculum. Teachers need to be provided adequate ICT training to develop their confidence in using ICT facilities and finding content relevant to the curriculum (Rana, 2023). Koehler and his colleagues (2007) emphasise the development of teachers’ TK and PK to enable them to explore quality content on the internet and use it.

With the use of portable mobile devices, learners can explore information when they need it and learn at their own pace and in their way by collaborating with other learners (Ozdamli & Cavus, 2011). Researchers (Hamm et al., 2014; Loewen et al., 2019) have emphasised the potential of mobile technology in school education in terms of involving students in group work, project-based learning, and online discussion on learning issues, such as how to find relevant learning materials and locate specific information in them. Several studies (Rana, 2018, 2023; Rana et al., 2022; Rana et al., 2020) have focused on the use of ICT, especially computer-based technology, in school teaching and learning in the context of Nepal. However, there is either no or limited empirical literature on the use of smartphones in teaching and learning in schools in Nepal. This paper, thus, contributes to the literature by reporting on how rural school teachers in Nepal use mobile devices in their instructional activities and the challenges they face while using these devices in pedagogical activities. In particular, we have tried to answer the following questions in this study.

Research questions

1. How do teachers in suburban under-resourced secondary schools in Nepal use mobile devices in teaching and learning?

2. What challenges do they face while using mobile devices in their teaching and learning?

Methods

This qualitative study analysed secondary school teachers’ understanding and experience of using mobile devices in teaching and learning grounded within their contexts. Following Yin (2018), the study was designed as a single embedded case study with multiple subunits of analysis to dig into the ideas, analyse the information extensively, and get insights into the embedded cases. To analyse teachers’ use of mobile devices in teaching and learning, which is the case of this study, we involved three under-resourced secondary schools located in suburban areas. The reason behind involving three schools in the analysis of the case was to obtain a thick description of the case from these sub-units and strengthen the analysis and results. This study allowed us to investigate teachers’ real-life experiences of using mobile technology through interviews and observations, as suggested by Creswell and Poth (2017). We employed semi-structured interviews and participant observation to gather the data.

Data collection procedures

Semi-structured interviews (Cohen et al., 2018) were conducted with the participants on multiple occasions in computer labs, libraries, and cafeterias to gather qualitative information for the study. We scheduled interviews with the research participants at times that were convenient to them. Ethics approval for the conduct of this research was obtained from Nepal Open University, Faculty of Social Sciences and Education. Before starting the data collection, the participants were informed about the research. After obtaining informed consent from them, we conducted interviews and observations. An average of 40 minutes was spent with each participant. Depending on the issues raised by the participants in the preceding interviews, we followed up with a second or third round of interviews. All participants were interviewed in the Nepali language, although they often replied in English.

The first author observed applications and digital resources on participants’ devices and developed a diary of observations. The COVID-19 lockdown in Nepal forced the closure of schools in March 2020. During the lockdown, schools gradually shifted to online learning. The first author also observed five online classes of each teacher involved in this study to explore their skills in using digital devices and web tools, such as Facebook and Zoom. Reports published by the Government of Nepal on ICT policy and implementation plans were examined, together with archives on the websites of the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology, the Nepal Telecommunications Authority, and other repositories. Relevant newspaper articles, research reports, theses, books, and electronic articles published nationally and internationally were also examined.

Participants

We identified the list of secondary schools in the municipality and clustered them into three areas: core, mid, and outskirts of the town in the Himalayan District of Gandaki Province in Nepal following the research of Rana et al. (2019). One school from each cluster was selected for the study with the consent of the headteacher in each of these schools. Other teachers were invited to participate in the study voluntarily. Based on the “first-come-first-serve” plan, we selected the participants who expressed their interest in participating in this study. Twelve secondary teachers (see Table 1), who had experience in using smartphones with internet, participated in the study. These teachers were teaching different subjects (English-5, Social Studies-3, Science-4).

Table 1. Participant Schools and Teachers (Pseudonyms).

School	Participant	Gender	Subject	Qualification	Years of Teaching	Years of Mobile Use
Shrinagar	Suman	Male	Science	M.Sc.	12	7
	Sunita	Female	English	M.Ed.	15	6
	Sophy	Female	English	M.Ed.	12	5
	Shambhu	Male	Social	B.Ed.	24	7
Nabin	Madan	Male	English	M.Ed.	18	5
	Mohan	Male	Social Studies	M.A.	10	4
	Mahesh	Male	Science	M.Ed.	15	7
Munamadan	Prem	Male	English	M.Ed.	10	7
	Pramila	Female	Social Studies	B.Ed.	12	5
	Kumar	Male	English	M.Ed.	12	5
	Narayan	Male	Science	M. Ed	10	6

Data analysis

The thematic analysis approach, especially the inductive coding scheme (Braun & Clarke, 2006) helped us analyse the massive amount of data we collected and present ideas systematically. In particular, the six phases of data analysis eased the process of data interpretation. This approach provided flexibility in organising a range of qualitative data into specific themes. In the first phase, the interview audio was transcribed verbatim and read multiple times in conjunction with the field notes. Next, the data were coded following an inductive process. Then, themes were identified based on the repetition of related codes in the data set. The data were analysed recursively, moving forward and backward during this process to ensure coherent analysis and reporting. In the fourth phase, the themes were reviewed by reading the data into them to ensure that they represented the participants’ meaning adequately. Overlapping themes were merged to organise them more systematically. The themes were renamed or relabelled in the fifth phase to make them clearer and more concise. Finally, the analysis of data was streamlined into the form of a report.

Results

The analysis of the data presented covers the use of smartphones for material development, lesson delivery, and student support. It also includes the challenges experienced by the participants.

Use of smartphone for material development

The findings of this study shed light on the innovative ways educators employ smartphone devices to develop teaching and learning materials, especially in instances where pre-existing digital resources are not readily accessible on the internet. During the interviews, the participants reported the multifaceted use of smartphones in the development of pictorial, textual, and audio-visual teaching and learning materials. Their comments indicated a notable trend in using smartphones to create digital content, especially to capture photos and record videos relevant to teaching content. To illustrate this further, Prem said “I capture photos of interesting text on my mobile for my students. I also take screenshots of interesting parts of text when I read on my screen.” Beyond the text-based visual resources, some participants harnessed the audio-recording capabilities of their smartphones, producing appropriate listening materials tailored to their lessons, either independently or collaboratively with others. For example:

I usually download model conversations for my lesson from the internet. If I do not find a suitable one, I record conversations with some friends who have good speaking skills on my mobile and play in the class. (Sophy)

When I go to some programmes in other schools, I record students’ performances of singing, dancing, and speech on my mobile device and show them to my students in their classes. (Madan)

Although participants preferred to use ready-made materials from the internet, their narratives underscored their proficiency in creating content tailored to their instructional needs using their smartphones. This demonstrated that smartphones not only reduce educators’ reliance on internet-based resources but empower them by offering opportunities to create digital resources that align with students’ learning needs, sidestepping the need for intricate digital media production facilities and tools. Those who were teaching English and Science seemed to have better TK and CK due to their higher level of English competency which helped them explore and use online resources more comfortably. Irrespective of their teaching experiences, teachers were aware of mobile device affordances in instructional activities.

Smartphone for lesson delivery

The participant schools were equipped with a computer lab and a few classrooms outfitted with fixed projectors before the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic. The available ICT infrastructure, however, was limited to teaching computer science and a few selected lessons from the other subjects. The teachers involved in this study were reluctant to use computer technology because of the sporadic availability of ICT infrastructure in the classrooms and the burdensome task of setting up the projector, internet, and other associated systems for every lesson. Setup took away vital time from their lessons, and the teachers believed that the use of computers in the classroom would hinder course progression and affect students’ exam preparedness. However, teachers appreciated the use of a smartphone in instructional activities due to the ease of storing instructional materials and convenience of carrying it in a pocket. Despite the challenges of small screen size and volume output, teachers used smartphones in their lessons, especially to present audio, video, and pictures. For example:

Sometimes I use pictures related to the lesson in my class, and I display them on my smartphone moving around the class. (Sunita)

Sometimes I use my smartphone to display videos and photos to my students. I had shown my students a documentary video by Tony Hagan in my previous schools dividing them into different groups. (Shambhu)

Today I searched for a video acted by university students on the one-act play Marriage Proposal on the internet and played it on my smartphone. (Prem)

These comments indicated that teachers had some level of TPACK. For example, they were able to utilise their mobile devices to create digital content and bring it into the classroom to make their teaching productive. They demonstrated their ability to explore free internet resources and use them in their classrooms. However, the level of using online resources was specific to innovative teachers, irrespective of the number of years they had used a mobile device with internet. Their attitude towards the use of mobile devices in teaching seemed to be prevalent to the extent of its use. The following interview extracts are some examples that show how teachers tried to transform their classroom teaching.

I used my smartphone while teaching poetry. I liked one video of a model recitation of the poem on YouTube. I downloaded it with an application, and I played it for my students on my smartphone. I used a portable speaker to amplify the sound of the smartphone so that everyone in the class could listen to it. (Sunita)

I can play multimedia. I easily connect it to a speaker if I need a louder volume of sound. I can easily teach in a small class with my smartphone. (Prem)

These comments provided a kind of picture about how exposure to digital devices offers the possibility of integrating these technologies into instructional activities. In addition, teachers’ expressions indicated that the user-friendly features of smartphones engrossed them in using the technology in teaching activities. We observed that they were capable of utilising freely available mobile applications to search and use teaching and learning materials. However, they had inadequate knowledge about how to embrace the smart features of mobile devices with internet in planning and delivery of lessons probably because they did not receive formal ICT training to use technologies including mobile devices. Dictionary, Google, Gmail, YouTube, voice recorder, Mero spark, Moodle, Skype, Nepali English bilingual dictionary, Video Converter, and Meriam-Webster dictionary are some applications I frequently use in teaching and learning. My students use the Mero Spark app for reading notes and question answers on their smartphones at home. (Prem)

I use my smartphone while teaching vocabulary, especially pronunciation and the meaning of words in class. (Kumar).

The add-ons enabled effective teaching even in large classrooms and emphasised the crucial role smartphones played as versatile teaching aids in classrooms that are not well-equipped with conventional ICT infrastructures. This was further demonstrated by the fact that all participants installed dictionary applications that read our pronunciation and meanings to aid vocabulary instructions. For example, Sophy observed:

I have a talking dictionary on my smartphone. My students listen to it. I sometimes use it to check the correct pronunciation when I am not sure of its pronunciation. (Sophy)

However, the most significant shift in smartphone use in teaching and learning was triggered by the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic because the abrupt pivoting from face-to-face to online teaching and learning necessitated educators to innovate rapidly. Teachers used their smartphones to run virtual classes when laptops and desktop computers were inaccessible. This adaptation suggests that smartphones can become crucial educational tools, especially when a computer is inaccessible because of cost. From our observations, we revealed that teachers’ limited experiences in terms of using mobile devices with internet in instruction seemed to be a determining factor in achieving TPACK.

Smartphones for remote support for students

Teachers reported that they often used mobile phones to provide distance support to their students’ learning. They stressed that the use of smartphones significantly increased during the COVID-19 pandemic when face-to-face learning in schools was suspended to maintain social distance and prevent the spread of the coronavirus. Despite having limited knowledge of online learning, they managed to leverage their basic ideas in creating virtual learning with the smartphones they had. Also, they used mobile phones to help students manage their studies independently at home. Students, for example, reached teachers by phone to get their learning support.

One day when I was in my previous school, one student shared a problem with his homework. He phoned me to support him because it was winter vacation. We did not go to school at that time. (Sophy)

About three years ago, a few students asked me some questions during exam preparation. Students usually do not ask questions on the phone. (Narayan)

Some of the students seek support during exam preparation time. They ask me to answer their questions. I type the answers to the short questions, but for long answer questions, I write on paper, take photos, and share with them through Messenger. (Santosh)

These comments provide an image of how teachers with their limited TK and PK learned to integrate a smartphone into their instructional activities, especially to teach lessons through phone conversations. Teachers’ expressions also reflected their attitude to learning how to use digital technologies in teaching and learning activities. Because they had to provide students with learning support from a distance after the COVID-19 outbreak, necessitating a change in teaching and learning methodologies, they were compelled to master new mobile applications like Zoom and Messenger. This consolidated the idea that exposure to technologies and experiences in using them determines the level of teachers’ TK and PK. For example:

Although I do not remember any online teaching and learning with my students before the pandemic, I connected with my students on Messenger and managed online classes via Zoom during the pandemic. (Madan)

The pandemic forced us to migrate teaching and learning from face-to-face mode to virtual mode, I self-learned to use Zoom meetings for online classes. (Kumar)

We understood that teachers, especially after the outbreak of COVID-19 in early 2020, utilised their mobile devices innovatively to design their instructional strategies and conduct teaching and learning with the technology. Teachers also appreciated administrative support in using mobile devices to bring changes to their pedagogies. We observed that teachers created online learning communities for their students on Viber, WhatsApp, and Messenger and used them as teaching and learning platforms with the help of their school administration. These mobile applications eased their communication not only with students but also with their parents.

Challenges for using smartphones in teaching and learning

Teachers in this study identified students’ lack of access to smartphones, poor internet connectivity, and small screen size of smartphones, as major challenges for using smartphones in regular teaching and learning activities. Although they wanted to extensively use smartphones in the planning and delivery of lessons, many students would not be able to go to online repositories to access learning materials without advanced digital devices. While the schools recognised smartphones as teaching and learning tools after the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, students were not allowed to bring their mobile devices into the classrooms. For example:

Students are not allowed to bring their smartphones to classes. However, teachers can take their smartphones in class and use them for educational purposes if they need to. (Madan)

Sometimes I let my students play Grammar games on my device if they come to me in their free time in school. I let other students in my neighbourhood play this game at my home. But they cannot bring their device to school, though they have one. (Sophy)

These remarks reveal instructors’ desire to shift from traditional to modern teaching methods through the use of these tools in their lessons. None of the research participants, however, explained the ban on students using mobile devices in the classroom. From the way they expressed themselves, it seemed likely that allowing smartphone use in the classroom would increase the administrative burden of monitoring possible device misuse by students. Teachers also worried that even while they tried to provide visual content on mobile devices, it was difficult for them to do so, particularly when teaching a big class because the images were too small to see from the rear of the classrooms.

I easily connect it to a speaker if I need a louder volume of sound. I can easily teach in a small class with my smartphone. However, teaching in a large class is a challenging job as the screen is not visible to all students in the class. (Madan)

The screen size of a smartphone is not large enough to present visuals for a large class. (Prem)

We noticed that very few of the classrooms with broadband internet connectivity were close to the computer lab or administration office during our school visit. Because the classroom internet connection was limited, the participants provided pre-downloaded content instead of viewing it instantly. For example:

I download documentaries on my smartphone in my office and show them in the classroom. The internet is not fast enough to use in the class. (Pramila)

I normally select content on my laptop at home because I have broadband internet access at my home. Then, I downloaded the selected content on my smartphone and presented it to the class. Accessing the internet in the classroom is time-consuming and might distract the quality of teaching and learning activities. (Mohan)

A lack of access to specifically designed educational applications was another challenge for teachers to use smartphones in teaching and learning activities.

I know there are specifically designed apps for science. But most of them are not affordable. I have not used such applications. (Santosh)

I have downloaded more than a hundred apps. Most of them are related to teaching and learning Science. One app is Nine Class Biology. Some of these applications have courses in Biology from other countries. These courses are useful for our students. They provide more detailed content than the courses offered in our country. Some applications contain books on science. There are class-wise applications, too. The Curriculum Development Centre has also designed one application. It has books from Grade One to Grade Ten. But it has not been updated. (Suman)

Also, teachers stressed that because they did not receive formal ICT training, they doubted the level of TPACK they had and had a low level of confidence in finding potential mobile applications useful to teach lessons. They revealed that they acquired the fundamental skills to operate mobile devices from the environment they were exposed to, without experts’ support. They frequently voiced their dissatisfaction with the government training agency’s teacher development strategy, claiming that it lacked the abilities necessary to prepare them for utilising ICT tools in teaching and learning. For example, Suman said:

The training we received from the government did not aim to develop our ICT skills. Trainers never talked about internet skills. They did not teach us how to search for relevant content on the internet. I know ICT skills are essential skills in this context. (Shambhu)

Training programmes don’t cover ICT in teaching and learning activities. I share my experience of ICT use with my colleagues. (Suman)

The results of our research show that most teachers are self-taught in their use of smartphones and other ICT tools, and that ICT-based training is still not widely available for all teachers. Particularly during and after the COVID-19 pandemic, these teachers used smartphones to create virtual teaching and learning. Teachers’ expressions reflected that they developed their confidence in using mobile technologies in teaching and learning during the pandemic and continued to use them in the post-pandemic situation. The observation of their virtual classes confirmed that the participants were prepared to use digital technologies including mobile devices in instructional activities. However, the participants expressed their dissatisfaction with initial teacher education that did not cover the use of ICT in pedagogical activities and failed to harness the power of smartphones for teaching and learning.

Limitation

This case study was conducted in a suburban area of one Himalayan district in Nepal. It illustrates the present status of ICT resources and teachers’ ICT skills and ability to implement ICT in community schools through mobile devices. The findings are not generalisable to different contexts where schools are better equipped, and teachers have opportunities for professional development training. However, the findings illustrate how mobile technology can be used in teaching and learning activities in similar contexts where mobile technology is available despite their geographic location and limited connectivity.

Discussion

Mobile devices, specifically smartphones, are growing in the education sector as these tools have offered several pedagogical opportunities for teachers and students. This research was conducted to investigate secondary school teachers’ use of mobile technologies in teaching and learning in the suburban areas of one Himalayan district in Nepal. This study found that teachers in these schools used their smartphones in teaching and learning in three ways: for material development, content delivery, and remote support. In addition, peculiar challenges such as limited access to online resources and restrictions on bringing smartphones to classes, are identified in this study.

The evidence shows the gradual acceptance of smartphones in teaching and learning activities. Mobile devices have emerged as a key component in the teaching and learning ecosystem. As reported in the study by Chai et al. (2011), mobile devices being a basic need in teachers’ daily lives might have developed their TK, propagating the idea of using it as a teaching tool. Initially being a means of capturing scenes and videos (Hamm et al., 2014) and gradually becoming a tool to explore online resources (Bernacki et al., 2020), the technology enabled teachers to develop some level of TPACK. However, the absence of formal ICT training for teachers posed a challenge for them to attain an advanced level of digital skills. Because of the lack of learning opportunities to use digital technologies in teaching and learning, they struggled to understand the affordances of the technologies (Rana, 2023). Despite the limited access to the internet and TK, teachers developed a positive attitude towards the use of mobile technologies in teaching and learning, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic. Their attitude towards mobile technology determined the level of TPACK they developed. Because they learned to use mobile devices with internet in teaching and learning activities during the pandemic, and did not have much experience when we met them, they did not have a high level of TK and PK.

While triggered by the unprecedented crisis, this metamorphosis in the role of mobile phones has underscored how mobile phones can enhance teaching and learning and support teachers with limited access to institutional and educational resources. Where there is unavailability of advanced computer technology and the internet (Rana, 2018), the convenience, portability, and multitasking of mobile phones can help teachers bring positive changes in education, especially in contexts like Nepal. However, teachers, as described by Koehler et al. (2007) need to have adequate TPACK to understand the potential of mobile technologies in education. Rana (2023) emphases the ICT training for teachers to equip them with TPACK so that they can understand the affordances of digital technologies including smartphones. Phillips (2017) suggests that teacher education programmes need to cover the use of technologies for the development of teachers’ TK, which is essential to leverage their CK in teaching and learning activities. The findings of this study indicate that teachers needed to be provided with adequate ICT training to develop their TK and CK, ensuring that they develop an adequate level of confidence in exploring online content for their course teaching.

Findings show teachers’ capability to recognise the potential of smartphones, especially in instructional activities. Despite having limited digital skills, teachers demonstrated their ability to explore and use mobile apps to teach lessons in the classrooms. Where access to computer technology is still limited (Kearney et al., 2018; Rana, 2022, 2023), teachers’ interest in learning to use the technology in the planning and delivery of lessons draws the attention of school administration and government to develop digital infrastructure in schools. The development of ICT infrastructure in schools and teacher training to use the technology would motivate teachers to be more devoted to their professional activities and elevate their TPACK (Rana, 2023). In particular, the opportunities for teachers to learn and practise ICT inherit TPACK in teachers (Koehler et al., 2013). However, the schools in this study did not allow students to bring their mobile devices into schools, assuming possible misuse of the devices. Dinsmore (2019) suggests that negotiation between teachers and students can ensure the ethical use of smartphones in learning activities. By embracing fluidity in pedagogy, teachers can leverage technology to deliver content, ensuring that smartphones can be used to substitute costly devices for enhanced learning experiences and clarification of ideas and concepts (González et al., 2017). Despite the perceived challenges such as limited knowledge of e-learning pedagogy, lack of guidelines for using mobile devices in school, and absence of e-pedagogies in general teacher training, the teachers in this study had positive attitudes towards using mobile technology. Findings indicated that irrespective of the length of using a mobile device, the need for using mobile devices, for example, during the crisis of COVID-19, encouraged teachers to develop their TPACK. Moreover, teachers gained their technological self-efficacy, to some extent, with their efforts without specific ICT training from their schools.

The use of mobile devices to support students’ learning from a distance, especially during the pandemic when all schools were shut down, indicates the growing awareness of digital technologies in Nepal. The pandemic acted as a catalyst with face-to-face interactions restricted, and smartphones transitioned from supplementary to primary tools for educational delivery and management. Teachers had to adapt to using phones even for tasks traditionally reserved for computers or face-to-face teaching. For instance, during the pandemic, remote assistance became paramount (Adhikari & Rana, 2022; Giri & Rana, 2022). From being largely reactive in assisting students outside the classroom, teachers became proactive, initiating support through familiar communication applications, such as Zoom and Messenger. Such support is argued to make students realise the value of informal learning outside their classes and give them more agency (Ilham, 2022). However, the findings of this study suggest that it is essential to equip teachers with minimal TK and PK to integrate digital technologies. Although teachers’ prior teaching experiences might have helped them explore mobile devices as teaching tools, their short-term practice, especially during the pandemic, was not sufficient to develop their adequate TPACK. Irrespective of the length of teaching experience, a proper environment for teachers to practise technologies including mobile devices, as described by Koehler et al. (2007), would develop their TPACK, ensuring that they have understood its implications.

Although smartphones emerged as the most widely used digital tools during the COVID-19 pandemic (Rana, 2022), teachers pointed out the lack of mobile devices among most students, the lack of access to broadband internet, and the absence of ICT training for teachers. These challenges are also reported in previous research in Nepal (Rana, 2018, 2022; Rana et al., 2022) and similar international contexts (Al-Hunaiyyan et al., 2018; Lubis et al., 2023). Asratie et al. (2023) argue that the development of teachers’ TPACK is a major challenge for institutions. Teacher education programmes, therefore, should equip pre-service teachers with the necessary TPACK (Rana, 2018; Rana et al., 2022) so that they can demonstrate their innovative ideas in the actual classrooms. This receptiveness of smartphones as educational tools underlines the great potential for the integration of digital technology to support learning and teaching. Teachers’ use of smartphones was basic, possibly because they did not receive ICT training, get adequate support from schools, and have enough experience in using smartphones. So, there is a significant opportunity for seamless integration of mobile devices with specialised applications and enhanced teacher support. The aftermath of the pandemic presents a unique juncture where the knowledge, skills, and surged receptiveness could be leveraged to embed mobile technology with the pedagogies that call for educational transformation. Teachers’ use of mobile technology also suggests that traditional pedagogical discourse and methodologies fall short of addressing the unique dynamics of mobile learning, which is associated with personalised, interactive, and collaborative approaches (Kearney et al., 2018; Ozdamli & Cavus, 2011). As demonstrated by this study, there is growing consensus on using mobile technology and adopting innovative pedagogical practices. Koehler and his colleagues’ (2013) suggestion developing a teacher training programme and implementing it based on the TPACK framework. Understanding the context would help achieve the goal of technology-integrated education programmes.

Conclusion

Teachers’ self-taught knowledge of m-learning appears to play an important role in using mobile technologies in teaching and learning activities. Despite limited or no access to computer technologies, teachers were proactive in utilising their smartphones to capture images and videos and use them as teaching materials. Their use of mobile devices indicated that they had some level of TPACK. In addition, their use of mobile data to access online resources shows their enthusiasm for developing TPACK. Regardless of their teaching experience, English and Science teachers had higher levels of TPACK due to their greater proficiency in English. Despite having an unstable electricity supply and limited internet access in suburban areas, teachers’ motivation to acquire TK and PK indicates the need for supporting them with formal ICT training.

This study has revealed the growing use of mobile technologies in instructional activities. In particular, the value of smartphones tremendously increased during the COVID-19 pandemic when all schools were shut down. In this catastrophic situation, both teachers and students had limited access to learning resources, but they had these little mobile phones in their hands to communicate. In this crisis, smartphones became the means for teachers to support their students’ learning from a distance by using mobile apps such as Zoom and Messenger. Although the use of mobile devices in teaching and learning activities did not receive administrative approval before the crisis, the technology was appreciated in the educational process during the pandemic. Upon returning to school, unfortunately students were not allowed to bring their mobile phones although teachers could use them in the classroom for instructional purposes. The crisis turned out to be an opportunity for teachers to develop their TPACK and apply it in managing learning in the crisis. We argue that teachers’ access to technologies including mobile devices, an opportunity for them to practise the technologies in teaching and learning, and administrative policies to integrate technologies into education determine the level of teachers’ TPACK development.

This study shows the benefits of mobile technologies in teaching and learning activities. However, potential challenges, such as the prohibition of students’ mobile devices at school, the lack of ICT training for teachers, and weak pre-service teacher education that does not cover the use of mobile technology in education, seem to derail the use of mobile technologies in school education in Nepal. However, there is a pressing need to reflect on and redesign the existing professional development models for teachers to equip them with TPACK.

Acknowledgment

This paper is based on the first author’s unpublished Master of Philosophy (MPhil) in English Education thesis at Nepal Open University, Faculty of Social Sciences and Education, Nepal. We would like to thank Amanda Cartridge for copyediting this paper.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Krishna Prasad Parajuli

Krishna Prasad Parajuli is an Associate Professor of English at Drabya Shah Multiple Campus in Gorkha, Nepal. He has done MPhil in English Education from Nepal Open University, Nepal. His areas of research interest include educational technology, especially mobile technology in education, open and distance learning, and literature for language development.

Karna Rana

Karna Rana, a PhD in Education [E-learning] graduate from the University of Canterbury, New Zealand, is an Online Learning Designer at Lincoln University, New Zealand. His areas of research interest are online learning, technology in education, education policy, digital humanism, indigenous knowledge, EMI, applied linguistics, and socio-cultural identity.

Suman Laudari

Suman Laudari, a PhD in Education [E-learning] from the University of Technology Sydney, Australia, is a senior learning designer at Charles Darwin University. He is an adjunct professor at Far Western University, Nepal. His research interests include digital agencies, digital competencies, learning design and technology use in education.