Measuring Up: Assessing the Measurement Properties of Two Self-Control Scales

Abstract

Gottfredson and Hirschi's self-control theory is one of the most empirically tested explanations of criminal behavior. Yet questions remain about the operationalization of self-control. Researchers have examined the relationship between self-control and crime predominantly with the Grasmick et al. (1993) scale. However, research investigating the measurement properties of that scale has relied primarily on statistical techniques that may underestimate or fail to detect potential problems with the scale. In addition, Hirschi (2004) recently offered a revised operational definition of self-control, which he argued is more faithful to the original theory. To date, research using Hirschi's revised self-control measure is sparse. We contribute to the literature by using Rasch measurement and negative binomial models to examine the measurement properties and construct validity of the Grasmick et al. (1993) and Hirschi (2004) self-control scales. The findings indicate that while there are some differences, and revisions are necessary, both scales demonstrate adequate measurement properties and construct validity.

Acknowledgments

This research was supported by the National Institute of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice Award No. 2006-IJ-CX-0045. The opinions, findings, conclusions, and recommendations expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not reflect the views of the Department of Justice.

Notes

¹Response rates were 32.1% for the large city, 98.1% for the medium-size city, and 91.9% and 88.6% for the two small towns, yielding an overall response rate of 68%. Although the response rate for the large city was lower than expected, it is generally consistent with response rates when active consent is required for participation (Esbensen et al. 1999). Still, the implications of this response rate are discussed in the “Summary and Discussion” section below. In addition, we re-estimated the Rasch analyses and negative binomial models for only the large city and only the small/medium town sample separately. Although there are some small differences, the results were substantively similar across city size and consistent with the results presented below. We also re-ran the negative binomial regressions controlling for city size; again, the results were substantively unchanged.

²Forty students did not have any information on either the Grasmick et al. (1993) scale or the Hirschi (2004) scale and are excluded from the Rasch analysis. The only significant difference between the Rasch model sample and the full U.S. sample pertains to gender, as 28 of the 40 individuals lost to data attrition are males.

³Significant differences between the abbreviated samples used in the construct validity analysis and the full U.S. sample pertain to gender and family affluence: the missing participants are disproportionately male and have a lower level of family affluence.

⁴Previous work has also included a measure of costs of criminal acts (see Piquero and Bouffard 2007), which were interacted with bonds. These tests were meant to determine if bonds work through costs to impact crime. We do not include costs here because we are not concerned with the pathway of self-control to crime, but rather its measurement properties.

^a Mean square fit statistics.

^a Eigenvalue of the first component.

⁵The sample size for reliability is 2,287 for the Grasmick et al. (1993) scale and 2,328 for the Hirschi (2004) scale.

*p < .05; **p < .01.

^a .

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Michael Rocque

MICHAEL ROCQUE is the Director of Correctional Habilitation for the Maine Department of Corrections and an adjunct faculty member of the University of Maine, Orono Sociology Department. His research interests include life course criminology, race and justice, and crime prevention. His work has appeared in the Journal of Criminal Justice, the Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology, Deviant Behavior, Victims & Offenders, and the International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology.

Chad Posick

CHAD POSICK is a Research Associate at the Institute on Race and Justice at Northeastern University. His research interests include the victim-offender overlap and the role of emotions in behavior. His recent research has appeared in Justice Research and Policy, Deviant Behavior, Psychology of Violence, and the International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology.

Gregory M. Zimmerman

GREGORY M. ZIMMERMAN is an Assistant Professor in the School of Criminology and Criminal Justice at Northeastern University. His research focuses on person-context interactions in the etiology of crime, delinquency, and other deviant social phenomena. He has recently been published in Criminology and the American Sociological Review.