The Effect of Stigma on Criminal Offenders’ Functioning: A Longitudinal Mediational Model

ABSTRACT

Research has rarely considered criminal offenders’ psychological responses to stigma, but these responses may significantly influence behavior after release from jail/prison. Jail inmates’ perceived and anticipated stigma was assessed prior to release from jail/prison (N = 163), and outcomes were assessed one year post-release (N = 371). We hypothesized that perceived stigma would predict poor adjustment in several domains (i.e., recidivism, substance dependence, mental health symptoms, community adjustment) through anticipated stigma. Results showed that perceived stigma predicted worse community adjustment through anticipated stigma, and this varied by race. Results are explored from an interdisciplinary perspective.

Acknowledgments

Many thanks to the members of the Human Emotions Research Lab for their assistance with this research, and the inmates who participated in this research.

Notes

¹ To assess for considerable differences obtained with FIML analysis, this measurement model was also run with the original sample of individuals who completed the stigma measures (N = 163). Similar fit was obtained (χ ² (47) = 87.66, p < .001; RMSEA = .07 with 90% CI .05 to 1.0, CFI = .91, SRMR = .08) and there were no large differences in factor loadings between the two samples. In the analysis of the smaller sample, only one factor loading noticeably decreased (marijuana dependence on Substance Dependence factor was .39 in sample of 163, but was .47 in FIML sample). Somewhat lower loadings are to be expected given the reduced power available in the smaller sample. Further, this loading was the lowest among factor loadings in both samples. Otherwise, loadings ranged from .48 to .90 and all loaded significantly onto their respective factors. All factor correlations were in the same direction as those in the FIML sample and remained significant in the smaller sample.

² To assess any differences obtained with FMIL analysis, the mediation model was run on the smaller sample of people who all completed the stigma measures (N = 163). Model fit was consistent (χ ²(67) = 120.77, p < .001; RMSEA = .07 with 90% CI .05 to .09, CFI = .89, SRMR = .08) with that obtained in FIML and there were no large differences in parameter estimates. Replicating what was found with FIML analyses, perceived stigma significantly predicted anticipated stigma (β = .33, p < .001), and anticipated stigma significantly predicted Community Adjustment (β = –.24, p = .02). The indirect effect was still significant (β = –.17, p = .02), and this effect was also marginally significant with bootstrapping (β = –.01, p = .09). Also, the indirect effect’s 90% confidence interval did not include zero (CI = –.022 to –.002). Anticipated stigma did not significantly predict any of the other latent outcomes in the smaller sample, consistent with FIML analyses.

Additional information

Funding

This research was supported by Grant #R01 DA14694 from the National Institute on Drug Abuse to June P. Tangney and Grant #5F31DA035037-02 from the National Institute on Drug Abuse to Kelly E. Moore.

Notes on contributors

Kelly E. Moore

KELLY E. MOORE is a graduate student in the Clinical Psychology Ph.D. program at George Mason University. Her research interests include offender populations, the psychological and behavioral implications of being in a stigmatized group, and barriers to community reentry after incarceration.

Jeffrey B. Stuewig

JEFF B. STUEWIG is a Research Associate Professor in psychology at George Mason University. His research interests include shame, guilt, substance abuse, violence, and risky behavior over the life course.

June P. Tangney

JUNE P. TANGNEY is a University Professor and Professor of Psychology at George Mason University. Her research interests include moral emotions and cognitions, strengths and virtues, and interventions with offenders.