Ethical approval
All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.
This manuscript has not been published in any other outlet, nor is it under consideration under any other outlet.
Notes
1 For this particular question and measurement of the dependent variable, n = 18,971.
Additional information
Notes on contributors
Catherine D. Marcum
Catherine D. Marcum is an associate professor in the Department of Government and Justice Studies at Appalachian State University. He received his Ph.D. in Criminology from Indiana University of Pennsylvania in 2008. Her areas of expertise include cybercrime offending and victimization, correctional issues, and sexual victimization. She is the editor of Corrections: Policy, Practice and Research.
George E. Higgins
George E. Higgins is a Professor in the Department of Justice Administration at the University of Louisville. He received his Ph.D. in Criminology from Indiana University of Pennsylvania in 2001. He is the 2018 recipient of the ACJS Founder’s award. His most recent publications appear or are forthcoming in Journal of Criminal Justice, Criminal Justice and Behavior, Justice Quarterly, Deviant Behavior, and Youth and Society.