Work Craving: A Conceptualization and Measurement

Abstract

Obsessive-compulsive models of workaholism do not allow diagnosing it as an addiction. We introduce an empirical evidence for conceptualization and measurement of work addiction as work craving. The Work Craving Scale (WCS) comprises: (a) obsessive-compulsive desire for work, (b) anticipation of self-worth compensation, (c) anticipation of reduction of negative affect or withdrawal symptoms resulting from working, and (d) neurotic perfectionism. Results (N = 1,459) confirmed the four-factorial structure of the WCS and indicated its good validity and reliability. The conceptualization of work craving significantly contributes to understanding of workaholism as an addiction, and should stimulate future research on work craving.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This project was supported by Polish National Science Centre Grant (DEC/2011/01/M/HS6/02567).

Notes

¹The first analyses of the measurement tool (see Study 1) were presented at the XL Congress of European Association for Behavioural and Cognitive Therapies, EABCT, Milan, Italy (Wojdylo & Buczny, 2010). This article extends the results of the conference presentation with additional analyses of Study 1 data and with Studies 2 to 4.

²We thank Professor Fred Bryant, Professor Albert Satorra, Professor Roman Konarski, and Dr. Gerhard Mels for very helpful suggestions in computing scaled chi-square difference test in confirmatory factory analyses of WCS model. We also thank our students of the University in Gdansk, of the University of Social Sciences and Humanities in Sopot, and Ewa Magier-Lakomy for their help with the data collection.

Note. N = 1,139. WCS = Work Craving Scale.

^a The original version of the WCS (in Polish) is available from the authors.

^b All factor loadings were significant (p < .001).

Note. Samples A, B, C; N = 1,139. CFI = comparative fit index; TLI = Tucker-Lewis index; RMSEA = root mean square error of approximation; SRMR = standardized root mean square residual.

*p < .001.

³LISREL 8.8 does not support the computation of a scaled chi-square difference test for RML estimation and multilevel CFA.

Note. Correlations for Sample A (N = 362) are presented above the diagonal, and correlations for Sample B (N = 183) are presented below the diagonal. Descriptive statistics for Sample A are on the right side of the Table (for Sample B on the bottom). WCS-SW = Anticipation of Self-Worth Compensatory Incentives from Work; WCS-R = Anticipation of Reduction of Negative Affect (Relief) and Withdrawal Symptoms Resulting from Working; WCS-NP = Neurotic Perfectionism; WCS-OC = Obsessive-Compulsive Desire for Work; WCS = Work Craving Scale general score; WART = Work Addiction Risk Test; ATQ = Automatic Thought Questionnaire; BDI = Deck Depression Inventory; Sex: 1 = female, 2 = male.

*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

Note. Correlations for Sample C in Study 1 (n = 594) are presented above the diagonal, and correlations for Study 2 (N = 100) are presented below the diagonal. Descriptive statistics for Sample C are on the right side of the Table (for Study 2 on the bottom). WCS-SW = Anticipation of Self-Worth Compensatory Incentives from Work; WCS-R = Anticipation of Reduction of Negative Affect (Relief) and Withdrawal Symptoms Resulting from Working; WCS-NP = Neurotic Perfectionism; WCS-OC = Obsessive-Compulsive Desire for Work; WCS = Work Craving Scale general score; WCS = General score on the WCS; Sex: 1 = female, 2 = male; WART = Work Addiction Risk Test; SES = Self-Esteem Scale; GHQ-28 = General Health Questionnaire; IHRB = Inventory of Health-Related Behaviors.

*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

Note. N = 1,139. WCS = Work Craving Scale; WART = Work Addiction Risk Test; WCS-SW = Anticipation of Self-Worth Compensatory Incentives from Work; WCS-R = Anticipation of Reduction of Negative Affect (Relief) and Withdrawal Symptoms Resulting from Working; WCS-NP = Neurotic Perfectionism; WCS-OC = Obsessive-Compulsive Desire for Work; ATQ = Automatic Thought Questionnaire; BDI = Deck Depression Inventory; SES = Self-Esteem Scale.

*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

Note. ATQ = Automatic Thought Questionnaire; WCS-SW = Anticipation of Self-Worth Compensatory Incentives from Work; WCS-R = Anticipation of Reduction of Negative Affect (Relief) and Withdrawal Symptoms Resulting from Working; GHQ = General Health Questionnaire; WCS-OC = Obsessive-Compulsive Desire for Work; LLCI = Lower Limit Confidence Interval; ULCI = Upper Limit Confidence Interval; WCS-NP = Neurotic Perfectionism.

^a Results for WCS-SW are presented in left columns and results for WCS-R in right columns.

*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

Note. Correlations for Study 3 (N = 100) are presented above the diagonal, and correlations for Study 4 (N = 120) are presented below the diagonal. Descriptive statistics for Study 3 are on the right side of the Table (for Study 4 on the bottom). WCS-SW = Anticipation of Self-Worth Compensatory Incentives from Work; WCS-R = Anticipation of Reduction of Negative Affect (Relief) and Withdrawal Symptoms Resulting from Working; WCS-NP = Neurotic Perfectionism; WCS-OC = Obsessive-Compulsive Desire for Work; WCS = Work Craving Scale general score; UWES = Utrecht Work Engagement Scale. The Maslach Burnout Inventory: MBI-EE = Emotional Exhaustion; MBI-D = Depersonalization; MBI-PA = Personal Accomplishment.

*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.