Diaspora or transnational citizens? Indian Ocean networks and changing multiculturalisms in South Africa

Abstract

This article gives an historical perspective to debates on xenophobia and immigration in South Africa after 1994. It contrasts contexts for immigration and the establishment of claims of belonging within the changing multiculturalisms of apartheid and “the rainbow nation.” It discusses different types of identity tactics deployed by immigrant groups in their struggles for recognition within these contexts. Finally, it compares the development during the twentieth century of the use of transnational Indian Ocean networks to support simultaneous claims for national and transnational belonging, as exemplified by groups of Cape Muslims and Durban Zanzibaris.

Keywords:

• transnationalism
• networks
• Indian Ocean
• Islam
• citizenship

Notes

1. In contrast to Vawda, I have used “strategy” to refer to frameworks of control, and “tactics” to refer to efforts to escape or manipulate them (cf. de Certeau [1980] 1984).

2. Ratiep is a Sufi ritual performance – controversial in the Cape from the nineteenth century – in which male dancers penetrate their bodies with spikes or other sharp implements.

3. Harries says little, though, of Mozbiekers who were or became Muslims, and how this may have affected their identity tactics. On the growth of Islam at the Cape, see Shell [1994] 2001, 356–358.

4. Mawlid can refer to the Prophet’s birthday, but also to ritual performances and poems used for the celebration of this and other important spiritual landmarks. Ziyara refers to a graveside commemoration, but is sometimes used interchangeably with mawlid.

5. This followed a complicated process during which some Zanzibaris had sought classification as “Coloured” – which was opposed by “Coloured” organisations in Durban – but which resulted in a number of them being removed to Wentworth and other “Coloured” townships, rather than to Chatsworth (cf. Seedat 1973).