Children’s Information-Related Internet Use at Home: The Role of the Quantity and Quality of Parental Support and Children’s Motivation

ABSTRACT

Children’s information-related internet use positively affects their acquisition of computer- and information-related skills. Nevertheless, this use still occurs predominantly in the family context. Parents’ support of their children’s internet use can motivate them to use the internet for information-related purposes. However, while parents’ support seems to be important, the quantity and quality of parental support have been shown to have different associations with children’s motivation. Thus, the goal of the current study was to examine the relationship between parents’ support (quantity and quality), children’s motivation to engage in information-related internet use, and children’s actual information-related internet use (practical and school- or learning-related use) using structural equation modeling. In addition, we examined the mediating effects of children’s motivation. Specifically, 492 12-year-old German children answered a paper-and-pencil questionnaire. We found positive associations between the quantity and quality of parents’ support and children’s intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, while only structure-giving support was found to be related to children’s intrinsic motivation. The quantity of support was directly related to children’s school- or learning-related use, while intrinsic motivation was associated with both forms of information-related internet use. Furthermore, we confirmed that children’s motivation is an important mediator in this context. The implications of these findings for parents and children are considered.

KEYWORDS:

• Children’s motivation
• information-related internet use
• quality of parental support
• quantity of parental support

Using the internet is part of children’s and young people’s everyday lives and it has played a crucial role in education for many years (Weber & Becker, 2019). The ability to effectively use information and communication technologies (ICT) has become increasingly important (Fraillon et al., 2013). With regard to school education, there is a consensus that the internet is an effective tool for achieving educational goals and that the use of the internet is an important prerequisite for participation in society (Hammer et al., 2021; Lee & Wu, 2013; Lewin & Charania, 2018; Vennemann et al., 2019). The use of the internet for information-related purposes has received considerable research attention in recent years and can be categorized as practical internet use and school- or learning-related internet use. The main difference between practical and school- or learning-related internet use lies in their respective contexts and purposes. While both uses are aimed primarily at obtaining information, practical internet use takes place in a recreational context and can be described as information seeking for personal gratification (e.g., reading news online or searching the opening hours of the zoo; Goldhammer et al., 2016). School- or learning-related use, in contrast, is defined as use exclusively for school- and learning-related purposes (e.g., searching the internet for homework; Kunina-Habenicht & Goldhammer, 2020).

Despite the implementation of digital learning in schools, children’s use of the internet still takes place primarily in the home context (Huang et al., 2018; Lauricella & Cingel, 2020; Senkbeil, 2018; Siddiq & Scherer, 2019). Thus, parents play an important role in supporting their children’s internet use, thereby encouraging their practical and school- or learning-related internet use (Gruchel et al., 2022). The typical way parents get involved in their children’s schooling at home is by helping with homework (Dumont et al., 2014; Núñez et al., 2015). However, in addition to the quantity of parental support with homework (i.e., the frequency), the quality of the support (support for autonomy, structure, and emotional support) is crucial (Deci & Ryan, 2008; Dumont et al., 2014). Although numerous empirical studies have examined the impact of the quantity of parental support in the context of internet inquiries, few have considered the quality of that support or the combination of quantity and quality (Hoover-Dempsey & Sandler, 2005; Pomerantz et al., 2007). For this reason, we made a fundamental distinction between the quantity and quality of parental support in our study. In addition, we included children’s motivation, as it is not only influenced by parents’ support (Acharya & Joshi, 2011; Deci & Ryan, 2000; Griffith & Arnold, 2019) but also has an impact on children’s internet use (Senkbeil, 2018; van Deursen & van Dijk, 2014). However, the majority of research on the relationship between children’s motivation and children’s internet use does not distinguish between different types of internet use or only focuses on leisure-related contexts (e.g., video gaming; Ryan et al., 2006). The relationship between motivation and information-related use (e.g., practical use or school- or learning-related use), which is becoming increasingly relevant in children’s everyday lives, has received little attention so far. Moreover, studies investigating the mediating role of motivation in this context are scarce, which, however, can be assumed on the basis of previous research (Dinkelmann & Buff, 2016; Kong & Wang, 2021; Milyavskaya & Koestner, 2011; Senkbeil, 2017).

In sum, we investigated the extent to which parental support impacts students’ motivation to use the internet for information-related purposes and its actual relationship to their internet use (practical and school- or learning-related). Furthermore, we considered the possible mediating effects of children’s motivation. In the following section, we provide a detailed overview of the underlying constructs describing the quantity and quality of parental support and its relationship with children’s intrinsic and extrinsic motivation for information-related internet use (Schiefele & Schaffner, 2015) in line with self-determination theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 1985) and by drawing a conceptual framework of parental homework support (Dumont et al., 2014).

Parental support and its relation to children’s internet use

Parental support (e.g., in the form of parents’ help with homework) is the most common and most typical way parents get involved in children’s school-related belongings at home (Dumont et al., 2014; Núñez et al., 2015). Following the home learning environment framework, in this study, we focus on an active form of parental support, which can be understood as parents’ instructional support. Parents’ instructional support is a type of individual support for children (e.g., parents’ guidance or help) and is characterized by a high level of activity on the part of both parents and children (e.g., helping with problems when children ask and illustrating ideals concerning what children can do on the internet; Bonanati & Buhl, 2021; Sciacca et al., 2022). This form of parental support has positive relationships with several child-related outcomes (e.g., children’s self-efficacy, self-regulated learning, or academic achievement), in contrast to more passive forms of parental support, such as modeling (Bonanati & Buhl, 2021; Bradley & Corwyn, 2005; Gruchel et al., 2022).

Research on the quantity (= frequency) of parental support in the field of children’s internet use has predominantly been investigated in the field of parental mediation, addressing parent – child interaction within the strategies of “co-use” and “active mediation” (Zaman & Mifsud, 2017). Frequent joint internet use and digital media sharing lead to more enjoyment for children when using the internet and a higher frequency of information-related internet use (Collier et al., 2016; Piotrowski, 2017). Furthermore, the frequency of parental support is positively related to children’s computer- and information-related self-efficacy as well as their media competence (Garmendia et al., 2012; Kucirkova et al., 2015). More frequent parental support is associated with children’s motivation to commit to academic activities and more frequent use of the internet for information-related purposes (Gruchel et al., 2022; Mata et al., 2018; Rubach & Bonanati, 2021). While previous research has focused primarily on the quantity of parental support, researchers have argued that children also may benefit from the way in which parents support their children (Yotyodying & Wild, 2016).

Studies considering the quality of parental support in the field of parental homework involvement have mostly been conducted on the basis of SDT (Deci & Ryan, 1985). SDT focuses on the nature and sources of human motivation and provides a helpful theoretical framework for deciding which dimensions of parental support to examine (Dumont et al., 2014). Following SDT, the quality of parental support can be characterized by three dimensions of parental behavior: support for autonomy, structure, and emotional support (Deci & Ryan, 2000). Support for autonomy means that parents encourage their children to self-initiate. This can be provided in different ways, such as adopting children’s perspectives, recognizing their feelings, offering behavioral choices, or encouraging them to take action (Pedersen, 2017; Tripathi et al., 2018). If children perceive parents as autonomy-supportive in school-related activities, they are more persistent in their learning and achieve better results (Deci & Ryan, 2008; Moè et al., 2018). In addition, the importance of structuring was highlighted, as it promotes perceived internal control over learning, which is a very important motivational factor (Moè et al., 2018). The structural dimension of parental support is characterized by parents’ behaviors to provide a framework that supports their children (e.g., parents’ organization of their children’s environment and clear communication with consistent expectations; Dumont et al., 2014; Grolnick & Pomerantz, 2009). The emotional dimension includes parental awareness of a child’s emotional state and work behavior and positive feedback about the child’s engagement in homework (Walker et al., 2004). Regarding previous research on the relationship between the quality of parental support and children’s outcomes, positive associations for all three dimensions have been revealed (Knollmann & Wild, 2007; Moroni & Dumont, 2020; Moroni et al., 2015; Pomerantz et al., 2007). The quality of parental support positively affects multiple learning outcomes, including children’s learning satisfaction when completing homework or performing school tasks (Chang & Chang, 2012; Dumont et al., 2014; Rahman et al., 2021; Yotyodying & Wild, 2016). Moreover, the quality of parental support predicts how much children enjoy using the internet (L. Zhao et al., 2011). While results on the benefits of the quality of parental support regarding children’s information-related internet use are, to the best of our knowledge, not known, the important role of the quality of parental support in how successfully and motivated children learn is very well known (Moroni et al., 2015).

The mediation role of children’s motivation

When children experience competence (e.g., the propensity to have an effect on the environment), autonomy (e.g., choice and volition in one’s behavior), and psychological relatedness (e.g., the desire to feel connected with others), they generally feel motivated (Deci & Ryan, 2002). The extent to which these needs (competence, autonomy, and psychological relatedness) are fulfilled is crucial for determining whether actions are intrinsically or extrinsically motivated (Deci & Ryan, 2008; Schiefele & Schaffner, 2015; Shen et al., 2013). The distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation has become a prominent theoretical framework in educational research (Schiefele & Schaffner, 2015). Actions performed for their own sake or for the inherent satisfaction of the activity itself are considered intrinsically motivated. Intrinsic motivation for information-related internet use refers, for example, to the willingness to search for information online because it is fun or based on a personal interest (e.g., searching for information about a pet or hobby). All other actions that involve a goal beyond the search itself are classified as extrinsically motivated (Caruso et al., 2020; Deci & Ryan, 2000; Schiefele & Schaffner, 2016). Extrinsic motivation for information-related internet use refers, for example, to the intention to achieve particular outcomes, such as being praised by one’s parents or improving one’s performance in school (Schiefele & Schaffner, 2015).

Previous studies on children’s motivation for internet use revealed a strong connection between children’s motivation to learn online and the use of certain online activities and success in online learning settings (Keskin & Yurdugül, 2020; Rahman et al., 2021). Furthermore, it has been shown that intrinsic and extrinsic motivation are related to different types of learning (e.g., in the homework context). In particular, intrinsic motivation is critical for children’s learning effectiveness in general, as it is related to deeper commitment and greater persistence in learning activities (Zaccone & Pedrini, 2019).

Parents play an important role in this. By fulfilling their children’s basic needs, they contribute to children’s intrinsic motivation in certain activities (Shen et al., 2013; L. Zhao et al., 2011). Even though previous findings suggest a connection between children’s motivational factors and children’s internet use, the majority of this research did not differentiate between different types of internet use or that only focused on a more leisure-related context (e.g., video gaming; Ryan et al., 2006). The relationship with more information-related use (e.g., practical use or school-related use), which is becoming increasingly relevant in children’s everyday lives, has hardly been taken into account. When we refer to children’s motivation in the following, we always consider motivation in the context of children’s information-related internet use.

Present study

In sum, previous studies have examined the importance of parents’ homework involvement (Dumont et al., 2014; Hoover-Dempsey & Sandler, 2005; Moroni et al., 2015), mostly operationalized as parental support (Dumont et al., 2014; Núñez et al., 2015; Pomerantz et al., 2007), in relation to children’s intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (Hill & Tyson, 2009; Moroni et al., 2015; Schiefele & Schaffner, 2015) or achievement-related outcomes (Collier et al., 2016; Garmendia et al., 2012; Gruchel et al., 2022; Kucirkova et al., 2015; Piotrowski, 2017). Bringing this together, the present study aims to discover these associations in children’s internet inquiries and to investigate the relationship between parental support, children’s motivation, and children’s information-related internet use for practical and school- or learning-related purposes. Drawing on previous research on parental homework involvement (Dumont et al., 2014), we distinguished between the quantity and quality of parental support. The proposed research model for achieving these goals is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Theoretically Based Model.

Based on our literature review, we posed the following research questions (RQs):

How is parental support associated with children’s motivation?

Regarding the influence of the quantity of parental support on children’s motivation in learning situations and internet inquiries and following SDT regarding the influence of the quality of parental support on children’s motivation (Acharya & Joshi, 2011; Chang & Chang, 2012; Deci & Ryan, 2008; Dumont et al., 2014; Rahman et al., 2021; Schiefele & Schaffner, 2015; Shen et al., 2013; L. Zhao et al., 2011), we addressed the following research hypotheses: the frequency of parental support (quantity) is related to children’s extrinsic and intrinsic motivation (H1.1) and a higher quality of support is related to higher intrinsic motivation (H1.2).

How is parental support associated with children’s information-related internet use?

Based on the results on the influence of the quantity and quality of parental support in general on children’s different outcomes in the homework context and the field of internet inquiries (Collier et al., 2016; Gruchel et al., 2022; Moroni et al., 2015; Piotrowski, 2017), we formulated the following research hypotheses: more frequent parental support (quantity) is related to higher information-related internet use (practical and school- or learning-related; H2.1) and a higher quality of support is related to higher information-related internet use (practical and school- or learning-related; H2.2).

How is children’s motivation associated with children’s information-related internet use?

Considering the results on the influence of children’s intrinsic and extrinsic motivation on children’s information-related internet use (Collier et al., 2016; Garmendia et al., 2012; Piotrowski, 2017), we formulated the following research hypothesis: higher motivation (extrinsic and intrinsic) is related to higher information-related internet use (practical and school- or learning-related; H3).

Based on previous research in other domains, exploring motivation as a predictor for children’s learning outcomes and the connection between motivation and need satisfaction (Milyavskaya & Koestner, 2011), and our literature review on the association between the quantity and quality of parental support, children’s motivation, and children’s information-related internet use, we investigated the mediating role of children’s motivation between the independent variables and children’s internet use. This step is important to gain a deeper understanding of the associations between children’s motivation and parental support so that they can be adequately promoted. Research on parental support in the context of internet inquiries and in other contexts has shown that children’s motivation is crucial to the relationship between parental support and children’s achievement-related outcomes (Dinkelmann & Buff, 2016; Grolnick et al., 1991; Kong & Wang, 2021; Pomerantz et al., 2007). Based on this research, and in accordance with the recommendations of other researchers (Milyavskaya & Koestner, 2011; Senkbeil, 2017) and our interest in investigating the mediating power of children’s motivation, we formulated the following RQ:

Does children’s motivation mediate the relationship between parental support and children’s information-related internet use?

Additionally, previous studies have found that gender, as a demographic variable, is associated with the frequency of parental support (Cooper et al., 2000; Sander et al., 2021; Vekiri & Chronaki, 2008), the quality of parents’ support (Dumont et al., 2014), different motives for using the internet (Vekiri, 2010), and the frequency of children’s internet use in general (Shen et al., 2013). Consequently, we added gender as a control variable in our analysis.

Method

Participants

To answer the RQs, we used data on 7th-grade students from North Rhine-Westphalia, which were collected as part of Project DigHomE (Digital Home Learning Environment) in 2021–22. The schools were selected randomly. There were no inclusion or exclusion criteria except for grade. A total of 15 schools and 427 children participated in the study. All questionnaires completed by the children were valid. The children’s mean age was 12.38 years (SD = 0.81), and 50.8% of the children were female. In all, 41.8% of the children attended a regular secondary school (Realschule/Sekundarschule), 47.6% attended a secondary school qualifying for university admission (Gymnasium), and 10.6% were enrolled in a comprehensive school (Gesamtschule). In total, 59.1% of the fathers and 65.1% of the mothers of the participating families had an upper secondary education (Hochschulabschluss) or higher. All of the children reported having access to the internet at home, most had access to a computer at home (72.5%), and nearly all had a personal smartphone. Approximately 3.8% of the children and 28.1% of the parents were not born in Germany. Based on the definition of the Federal Statistical Office in Germany, children were considered to have a migration background if they or their parents (one or both) had immigrated to Germany. The proportion of children in Germany under the age of 20 with a migration background is 30.8% (Statistisches Bundesamt [German Federal Statistical Office], 2021), which is slightly higher than in the current study.

Research procedure

Participating children were recruited through their schools. The schools were contacted through the school principals, who were informed about the project and the questionnaire survey. After confirming a school’s participation, all concerned parents received a declaration of agreement with information about the project and data protection policies. Completed consent forms were collected and returned by the class administrators. The questionnaire surveys were conducted exclusively with children who had a declaration of agreement. If this was not the case for all children in a class, the groups were separated, and the survey was conducted in a separate room. After a short introduction, the paper-and-pencil questionnaire was distributed anonymously and completed by the children. Participation was voluntary and could be interrupted at any point during the survey. The University Ethics Committee declared this study exempt.

Measures

We adapted established instruments for data collection to meet the needs of the present study. The modified scales were piloted, then tested in a prior study with 5th- and 6th-graders (2019; 2020). For all scales, we used confirmatory factor analysis to evaluate the psychometric properties. Only items with a loading of at least 0.40 on the factor were used to interpret the factors.

The Quantity of Parental Support scale was used to determine the frequency of parental support for children’s information-related internet use (Gruchel et al., 2022). The scale consisted of three items. Children were asked how often their parents helped search the internet (e.g., “My mother/father types words in a search engine for me”) and responded on a five-point Likert scale (1 = never to 5 = very often). Cronbach’s α in our study was 0.79.

The Quality of Parental Support scale was measured using an adaptation of Wild et al. (2006) instruction scale for children’s home-based learning. For the purposes of this study, we adapted three aspects of parental support and modified all items for the field of internet inquiries: Autonomy (e.g., “When I have problems searching the internet, my parents ask me how they can help me”), Structure (e.g., “When I search for something on the internet for school, I know exactly how much care my parents expect of me”), and Emotional Support (e.g., “My parents cheer me up and help me when I don’t find good search results”). All dimensions consisted of four items. The children rated the statements of each scale on a five-point Likert scale (1 = not at all true of me to 5 = very true of me). In our study, Cronbach’s α for the Autonomy scale (α = 0.86) and for the Emotional Support scale (α = 0.84) showed high internal consistency. Cronbach’s α for the Structure scale (α = 0.69) showed acceptable internal consistency.

To assess Children’s Motivation for information-related internet use, we adapted the scales for extrinsic and intrinsic motivation from the Motivation for Reading Questionnaire (Schiefele & Schaffner, 2016). Originally developed to assess children’s motivation for reading, the introductory question was modified as follows: “Why do you search for something on the internet when you are not in school?” Responses were given on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (“not at all true of me”) to 5 (“very true of me”). Our final scale for Extrinsic Motivation (e.g., “I’m looking for something on the internet because it’s important to me to always be the best at using the internet”) consisted of four items. For Intrinsic Motivation, the confirmatory factor analysis showed no good fit. For this reason, we used exploratory factor analysis with principal component method. The results showed that items in this scale loaded on two factors (Appendix). Therefore, the scale was split into two dimensions: Fun, including three items (e.g., “I search for something on the internet because I enjoy it”), and Interest (e.g., “I search for something on the internet because it allows me to learn more about things that interest me”), including three items. Intrinsic Motivation was specified as a correlated two-factor second-order construct considering the two subdimensions in the model (r = 0.56). In our study, Cronbach’s α for the Extrinsic Motivation scale was α = 0.76, α = 0.72 for the Fun scale, and α = 0.81 for the Interest scale, showing acceptable to high internal consistency. In the questionnaire, the scales for extrinsic and intrinsic motivation were presented under the same introductory question in a common block in which the items were mixed.

Children’s information-related internet use, as the dependent variable, was measured according to two different kinds of information-related internet use at home: Practical use and School- or learning-related use (Gruchel et al., 2022). The scale for Practical use (e.g., “Reading news on the internet [e.g., current affairs]”) included two items, and the scale for School- or learning-related use (e.g., “Browsing the internet [e.g., for preparing an essay or presentation])” included four items. For both scales, the children responded on a five-point scale ranging from 1 (“never”) to 5 (“very often”). In our study, the Pearson’s correlation coefficient of the two-item Practical use scale was 0.42. Cronbach’s α for the School- or learning-related use scale in our study was 0.55, which is a similar small Cronbach’s alpha value as found in the original scale because of heterogenic items (Gruchel et al., 2022; Kunina-Habenicht & Goldhammer, 2020).

Finally, we assessed Gender, as a control variable, through a dichotomous item (boy = 1; girl = 0).

Data analysis

The relationships among the variables based on the theoretical model (Figure 1) were tested by structural equation modeling (SEM) using R software (Version 4.2.2, R Core Team 2022) with the packages psych (Revelle, 2022) and lavaan (Rosseel, 2023). Due to the sample size, we used manifest variables. To report goodness-of-fit indices, an overidentified model is needed, which is why we modeled the endogenous constructs as latent constructs. Further, the construct of intrinsic motivation was modeled as a latent construct because of its second-order structure. With respect to the goodness of fit of the measurement model, the following goodness-of-fit indices and their cutoff criteria were used (Beauducel & Wittmann, 2005; Hu & Bentler, 1999; Little, 2013): chi-square/df (≤2.0 excellent model fit), comparative fit index (CFI; > 0.9 acceptable and > 0.95 good model fit), root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA; < 0.06 excellent model fit), and standardized-root-mean residual (SRMR, 0.08–0.05 acceptable and 0.04–0.02 very good model). Because the students were nested within various classes (N = 44) and different schools (N = 15), we used cluster-robust standard errors in the analyses; thus, the estimated standard errors were corrected for the design effect (Finch et al., 2014). To examine possible mediating effects concerning the second RQ, the indirect effects were calculated, and the asymptotic confidence intervals were used to check the significance of specific indirect effects (95% confidence intervals [BCa CI] based on 1,000 bootstrap samples, which indicate significance when the CI excludes the value zero; MacKinnon & Fairchild, 2009; MacKinnon et al., 2007). According to X. Zhao et al. (2010), the following types of indirect effects can be distinguished: (1) complementary mediation (the mediated and direct effects have the same sign), (2) competitive mediation (mediated effect and the direct effect exist but do not have the same sign), and (3) indirect-only mediation (a mediated effect exists, but no direct effect exists).

Results

Model fit

The performed SEM showed a good fit to the data: (χ² (47) = 59.326, p < .107, CFI = 0.989, RMSEA = 0.025, SRMR = 0.031). Mediating effects were tested using SEM. The tested model, with all the significant relationships between the variables, can be seen in Figure 2. Means, standard deviations, range, and bivariate correlations are displayed in Table 1.

Figure 2. Final Model Results.

Note: Latent analysis. Statistics are significant standardized coefficients. Gender: 1 = male, 0 = female. *p < .05.**p < .01.***p < .001

Table 1. Means, standard deviations, range, and bivariate correlations of all variables.

	M	SD	Range	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9
(1) Quantity of Parental Support	2.14	0.88	1–5	−
(2) Quality of Parental Support: Autonomy	3.44	1.09	1–5	.40***	−
(3) Quality of Parental Support: Structure	3.06	0.96	1–5	.31***	.37***	−
(4) Quality of Parental Support: Emotional Support	3.36	1.09	1–5	.43***	.67***	.42***	−
(5) Extrinsic Motivation	1.91	0.83	1–5	.23***	.02	.14***	.07	−
(6) Intrinsic Motivation	3.34	0.89	1–5	.21***	.17***	.26***	.21***	.35***	−
(7) Practical Use	2.68	0.93	1–5	.15***	.03	.16***	.01	.22***	.39***	−
(8) School- or Learning-Related Use	2.87	0.78	1–5	.24***	.13***	.18***	.08	.26***	.30**	.40***	−
(9) Gender	−	−	−	−.14**	−.17***	.02	−.13**	.10*	−.06	.07	−.07	−

Note. *p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

Relationship between parental support, children’s motivation, and children’s internet use

Our first RQ focused on the association between the quantity and quality of parental support and children’s extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. Therefore, we hypothesized that more frequent (H1.1) parental support is related to children’s extrinsic and intrinsic motivation and that higher-quality parental support (H1.2) is related to higher intrinsic motivation of children. The results (see Figure 2) showed that the quantity of support is related to higher extrinsic and higher intrinsic motivation of children to use the internet for information-related purposes, thus confirming H1.1. The results on the association between the quality of parental support and children’s intrinsic motivation showed that only the structural dimension was associated with children’s intrinsic motivation. No associations were found between autonomy support, emotional support, and children’s intrinsic motivation. Thus, H1.2 was partially confirmed. Overall, parental support (quantity and quality combined) explained 9% of the variance in the children’s extrinsic motivation and 11% of the variance in the children’s intrinsic motivation. Furthermore, the quantity of support was moderately to highly correlated with all dimensions of the quality of support.

The second RQ addressed the relationship between the quantity and quality of parental support and children’s practical and school- or learning-related internet use. We hypothesized that more frequent support (H2.1) and higher-quality parental support (H2.2) were related to both forms of children’s information-related internet use (practical and school- or learning-related). The results (see Figure 2) showed that the quantity of parental support is associated with children’s school- or learning-related internet use but not with practical use. No significant associations were found between the quality of parental support and children’s information-related internet (practical and school- or learning-related) use. Hence, H2.1 was partially confirmed, while we could not confirm H2.2.

RQ 3 focused on the relationship between children’s extrinsic and intrinsic motivation and children’s practical and school- or learning-related internet use. We hypothesized that higher extrinsic and intrinsic motivation was related to both forms of children’s information-related internet use (H3). As visualized in Figure 2, only children’s intrinsic motivation was related to both forms of information-related internet use (practical and school- or learning-related), while no significant associations were found between children’s extrinsic motivation and children’s information-related internet use. Thus, H3 was partially confirmed.

Furthermore, the results regarding the relationship between practical and school- or learning-related internet use showed that both forms of internet use are highly associated, as well as both forms of children’s motivation. In total, children’s motivation explained 39% of the variance in children’s practical internet use and 29% of the variance in their school- or learning-related internet use.

Children’s motivation as a mediator

In RQ 4, we assumed that children’s motivation mediates the relationship between the quantity and quality of parental support and children’s information-related internet use. In addition to the direct effects of the quantity and quality of parental support explained above (see Figure 2), we found several indirect effects, confirming that extrinsic and intrinsic motivation act as mediators between the quantity and quality of parental support and children’s information-related internet use. First, there was an indirect effect of the quantity of parental support on children’s school- or learning-related internet use through children’s extrinsic motivation (b = 0.045, BCa CI [0.000, 0.089]; complementary mediation). We also found indirect effects of the quantity of parental support and children’s school- or learning-related internet use through children’s intrinsic motivation (b = 0.047, BCa CI [0.007, 0.097]; complementary mediation) as well as for the structure dimension and children’s school- or learning-related internet use through children’s intrinsic motivation (b = 0.086, BCa CI [0.025, 0.134]; indirect-only mediation). Second, we found indirect effects for children’s intrinsic motivation when mediating the relationship between the quantity of parental support and children’s practical internet use (b = 0.086, BCa CI [0.014, 0.143]; indirect-only mediation) as well as for the structure dimension and children’s practical internet use through children’s intrinsic motivation (b = 0.158, BCa CI [0.050, 0.200]; indirect-only mediation).

Gender differences

Regarding parental support, boys reported receiving a lower frequency of support and less autonomy and emotional support from their parents compared to girls. Furthermore, boys reported higher extrinsic motivation than girls. No gender differences were found in children’s intrinsic motivation or their practical and school- or learning-related internet use (see Figure 2).

Discussion

This study aimed to investigate the relationship between parental support, children’s intrinsic and extrinsic motivation for information-related internet use, and children’s information-related internet use for practical and school- or learning-related purposes. Despite the importance of distinguishing between the quantity and quality of parental support, we are not aware of any studies that have reported on the quality of parental support or both dimensions (quantity and quality) in research on children’s internet inquiries. Hence, the present study takes the first step toward closing this gap. To contextualize the study, we adapted previous research on parental homework involvement and parental support, which has often been based on SDT (Deci & Ryan, 2000). In the following section, we discuss our key findings in more depth and present some implications for future research. Of course, our interpretations and recommendations derived from the results and discussion always apply under the condition that the results of this study can be replicated in future research.

Relationship between parental support and children’s motivation

First, in RQ 1, we investigated the relationship between the quantity and quality of parental support and children’s motivation. Our results indicate that children’s perceptions of more frequent parental support promote intrinsic motivation as well as extrinsic motivation for information-related internet use. Thus, we confirmed that the quantity of children’s perceived parental support is an important predictor of children’s motivation in general. This result aligns with research in other domains focusing on the quantity of parental support as a predictor of children’s motivation (Mata et al., 2018; Rubach & Bonanati, 2021). Consequently, considering the quantity of parental support alone is insufficient when investigating relevant predictors of children’s intrinsic motivation. The inclusion of additional forms of parental support (parents’ modeling or restriction) in future studies could provide further insights into the influence of the quantity of such support on children’s motivation.

Regarding our results on the association between the quality of parental support and children’s motivation, our study confirmed specific dimensions of the quality of parental support as a major factor influencing children’s intrinsic motivation. Our findings are thus in line with previous research (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Hoover-Dempsey et al., 2001; Knollmann & Wild, 2007). We found that children are more intrinsically motivated when they perceive high structural support from their parents. As noted in research on parents’ homework involvement (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Yotyodying & Wild, 2016), children are intrinsically motivated when their three basic needs (competence, autonomy, and psychological relatedness) are fulfilled. It is possible that by providing a structure (e.g., in learning situations), parents create an environment in which children can feel competent, autonomous, and involved at the same time, which in turn contributes to the fulfillment of their basic needs (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Dumont et al., 2014; Yotyodying & Wild, 2016). The strong association between all dimensions of qualitative support and the association between the structural dimension and children’s intrinsic motivation found in our research support this argument. More precisely, our findings combined with previous research indicate that the provision of structure by parents can show children how to be effective in their information-related internet use (Marchand & Skinner, 2007), thus promoting children’s enjoyment and interest in using the internet for information-related purposes. This finding is also in line with previous studies that found the structure dimension to be the most important predictor of achievement-related outcomes, for example because of the joint negotiation of rules (Moè et al., 2018; Patall et al., 2008). However, overall, the structure dimension has been given less consideration in previous studies in the homework context than the autonomy dimension (Dumont et al., 2014). Therefore, future studies should focus more on the structure dimension and its important role, especially in the context of children’s internet inquiries (Dumont et al., 2014).

Further, the missing association between parent’s emotional support and children’s intrinsic motivation, which is in contrast to previous research (Knollmann & Wild, 2007), may be due to the fact that communication and exchange with peers could be more decisive for children’s motivation for internet use than the emotional support provided by their parents (Lawrence & Fakuade, 2021). This might be particularly true for children in the first years of secondary school, as information-related internet use becomes more important in the school context at this time because children spend a great deal of time with their friends. While previous studies have highlighted the importance of peers with regard to children’s different motives for internet use (Soh et al., 2014), future research should take a closer look at the roles that peers play in children’s motivation to commit to information-related internet use and internet use in the school context (Chiu, 2022).

Relationship between parental support and children’s information-related internet use

To answer RQ 2, we investigated the relationship between the quantity and quality of parental support and children’s information-related (practical and school- or learning-related) internet use. Our results revealed a positive association between the quantity of parental support and children’s school- or learning-related internet use. This result confirms previous findings from studies on parental involvement (Collier et al., 2016; Kucirkova et al., 2015; Phillipson & McFarland, 2016), which reported that parental support, understood as a sensitive reaction to children’s needs, is an important predictor of more advanced internet use by children (Senkbeil & Wittwer, 2008). One possible explanation for the missing association between the quantity of parental support and children’s practical internet use could be that children do not require help from their parents when their internet use is more self-regulated. To explain this result, it is necessary to look at the occasions on which children use the internet for information-related purposes in the leisure context (e.g., Senkbeil, 2018). On the one hand, information-related internet use could be based on children’s own interests, such as when they are interested in certain topics and independently search for appropriate information. In this case, children may not need just any support from their parents because their actions are very self-initiated and self-regulated. This would describe our understanding of practical internet usage. On the other hand, information-related use, as a more complex type of internet use, is often part of school tasks and is less self-regulated. It is conceivable that parental support is needed more often in this form of internet use than in practical use, as it can be more challenging for children. However, it is also conceivable that parents instruct their children more frequently when internet use is part of a school task.

Relationship between children’s motivation and children’s information-related internet use

Regarding RQ 3, we investigated the association between children’s extrinsic and intrinsic motivation and children’s school- or learning-related and practical internet use. We found positive associations between children’s intrinsic motivation and their practical and school- or learning-related internet use. On the one hand, this result confirms previous findings regarding the relevance of children’s motivation in their learning behavior (e.g., learning satisfaction when completing homework or solving school tasks; Chang & Chang, 2012; Rahman et al., 2021; Yotyodying & Wild, 2016). On the other hand, it underlines the attractiveness of the internet for information-related purposes in the leisure context of children (e.g., Goldhammer et al., 2016). The use of the internet (and digital media in general) is of general interest to children as they grow up with digital media. The internet is omnipresent in children’s everyday lives, which can be beneficial for using the internet as a research medium for learning purposes. As, in this sense, the use of the internet can become very instrumental, extrinsically motivated children can transform their motivation into more self-determined behavior due to internalization and integration based on SDT (Deci & Ryan, 1985). These forms of extrinsic motivation show many qualities that are similar to intrinsic motivation (e.g., Goldhammer et al., 2016), which might explain why we could not find significant associations between children’s extrinsic motivation and both forms of information-related internet use. This explanation is in line with our result that extrinsic and intrinsic motivation are highly correlated and that intrinsic motivation has strong associations with both forms of children’s information-related internet use. The extent to which different forms of extrinsic motivation actually affect different internet uses needs to be investigated in further research considering SDT (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 2002).

Moreover, we found a strong association between children’s practical and school- or learning-related internet use. Thus, it is possible that children’s use of the internet at home, based on their own interests for practical purposes (e.g., searching for information about their hobbies), can affect their internet use for school- or learning-related purposes. Including results of previous research, it therefore may be advisable to give children space at home for information-related internet research and to encourage information-related internet use, for example through parent-child activities (Collier et al., 2016; Piotrowski, 2017). Future research also should examine whether children’s internet use in a leisure-related context can act as a mediator of children’s school- or learning-related internet use outside of school.

Children’s motivation as a mediator

In RQ 4, we examined the mediating role of children’s motivation. Our results revealed that the quantity of parental support indirectly affects children’s school- or learning-related internet use through children’s extrinsic motivation. Furthermore, the quantity of parental and structural support indirectly affects children’s practical and school- or learning-related internet use through children’s intrinsic motivation. Accordingly, the influence of the quantity and quality of parental support becomes visible through children’s motivation. Our results regarding the mediating role of children’s motivation are consistent with previous findings related to children’s academic achievement (Dinkelmann & Buff, 2016; Grolnick et al., 1991; Kong & Wang, 2021; Pomerantz et al., 2007; Senkbeil, 2017) and highlight the importance of investigating children’s motivation in this context. Accordingly, future research should prioritize children’s motivation in online learning. We are not aware of other studies on the mediating role of children’s motivation in the context of children’s internet inquiries. Thus, our results provide the first information to address this research gap.

Gender differences

The overall findings of previous research on gender differences, especially regarding parental support, are heterogeneous. On the one hand, we were able to confirm previous findings on parents’ homework support in secondary schools, showing that girls are supported more often than boys (Cooper et al., 2000). On the other hand, previous research revealed that boys perceived more support from their parents in homework (Sander et al., 2021) and computer use than girls (Vekiri & Chronaki, 2008). These differences may depend on the context in which parents provide support (e.g., homework context vs. internet context). Drawing on previous research results, boys feel more competent than girls when using the internet for searching (Vekiri & Chronaki, 2008), and parents expect boys of this age to be more autonomous and self-reliant than girls (Sander et al., 2021), which may result in less parental support in general. However, it is also possible that parents provide support for internet use precisely because they associate more worries with it. This aspect is examined more closely, for example, in research on parental attitudes toward digital media and in particular the perception of risks (e.g., Kammerl et al., 2020). Further research on gender differences in parents’ support, especially in the context of children’s internet use, is needed to explore whether boys need different types of support than girls. We did not find gender differences in children’s information-related internet use, which is consistent with previous findings (Feierabend et al., 2020). However, we found that boys were more often extrinsically motivated than girls to use the internet for information-related purposes. Drawing on previous research, a possible explanation for this is that boys and girls are attracted to different aspects of internet use (Vekiri, 2010). Whereas boys tend to be more interested in technical aspects, which results in them discovering things on the internet or exploring problems, girls tend to be more interested in creative aspects and instructional formats, enabling them to share and collaborate on what they learn (Vekiri, 2010).

Limitations and practical implications

When interpreting the results, the cross-sectional design of the study must be considered. To obtain evidence of the influence of parental support on children’s motivation and internet use, longitudinal data are needed, which are, to the best of our knowledge, currently not available. Another limitation is that we focused exclusively on statements from the children’s perspective. This decision was based on previous research, which has demonstrated that the children’s perspective is more valid than the parents’ perspective (Dumont et al., 2014; Hoover-Dempsey & Sandler, 2005). However, this should be contrasted with parents’ perspectives in future research. In our analysis, we tested both forms of parental support – the quantity of support and all dimensions of qualitative support – simultaneously. It is conceivable that by using this way of testing some paths from parental support may not have become visible. Considering two models in which quantity and quality are considered separately could provide more information on this assumption. Further limitations are related to our instruments for assessing children’s information-related internet use. In particular, the scale assessing children’s school- or learning-related internet use should be viewed critically due to its internal consistency. Other studies using this scale reported comparably weak internal consistencies (Kunina-Habenicht & Goldhammer, 2020). This problem might be due to the heterogeneity of possible activities tied to school- or learning-related use, which is why it is not possible to distinguish between different dimensions of the construct. Nevertheless, we assume that there is a common factor and that school- or learning-related internet use can be summarized in one scale (Goldhammer et al., 2016).

Despite these limitations, our findings are meaningful and offer implications for practice. Above all, our results underline the importance of parental support in the context of children’s internet inquiries, consistent with previous research on parental homework involvement. Therefore, parents’ involvement, not only in homework in general but also in digital learning, must be facilitated by providing parents with guidance on how to support their children. One possible way to do so would be to provide special programs to help parents improve the quality of support they provide and to improve their interactions with their children in the context of online learning (Dumont et al., 2014; Gruchel et al., 2022). Furthermore, children’s motivation has been shown to be critical when considering parental support and children’s information-related internet use. This is not only because parental support has an indirect effect on children’s information-related internet use through children’s motivation but also because motivation is decisive for whether children use the internet as an information medium in a leisure context, irrespective of school- or learning-related tasks. Due to the relevance of the internet and its crucial role in education and participation in society, it is important to make its possibilities and potential more transparent in order to promote children’s intrinsic motivation. In doing so, boys’ and girls’ different needs when using the internet must be considered. Schools and other educational institutions must emphasize the importance of the internet as an information medium to make its potential clearer to children and parents, thereby promoting interest in information-related research.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Funding

The research is part of the project DigHomE, which is funded by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research in Germany [01JD1814A].

Appendix

Results of principal component analysis of the Intrinsic Motivation dimensions.

Table

	Item (“I looking for something on the internet … ”)	Intrinsic Motivation – Fun	Intrinsic Motivation – Interest
1	because websites are often about exciting topics.	0.62	0.44
2	because homepages, websites or blogs are often exciting.	0.70	0.18
3	because I enjoy it.	0.54	0.26
4	because it allows me to learn more about things that interest me.	0.29	0.71
5	because it allows me to learn something new.	0.24	0.85
6	because I can quickly find a lot of information.	0.31	0.60

Note. All factor loadings were significant and p < .000. Rotation method is varimax.