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Abstract
In early September 1959, over 1000 delegates – almost half of them from rural Natal – packed the Bantu Social Centre in Durban for a Natal People’s Conference. A banner stretched across the stage, thanking women for their courageous leading of protests against apartheid. For several months, women had been storming municipal beerhalls and destroying cattle dipping tanks, symbols of Bantu authorities in the rural areas. But African National Congress president Albert Luthuli sought to rein in the women’s violence, declaring it the Congress’s task to educate them ‘of the efficacy of Congress methods of struggle’. Existing scholarship has revealed the contradictory nature of women’s actions – both defending a way of rural life under assault and resisting a system that conscribed their access to urban life. This article considers how women not only challenged gender hierarchies when they initiated violent resistance, but also used ideas about masculinity and the family to shame their husbands and African National Congress (ANC) leaders into joining the rebellion. The article also demonstrates how ANC president Albert Luthuli responded, making gendered discourse part of ‘Congress methods of struggle’ in 1959. Luthuli sought not only to steer women towards non-violence, but to use their behaviour to mobilise men into action.
Acknowledgements
This article has benefitted from conversations with Mwelela Cele and Omotayo Jolaosho, as well as feedback from the external reviewers, the 2016 African Feminism around the World meeting at Penn State, the 2017 Southern African Historical Society conference and the 2017 North Eastern Workshop on Southern Africa.
Notes
1 J. Matthews, ‘The Inside Story of the Natal Women’s Protests’, Fighting Talk, 13, 7 (September 1959), 3–4.
2 ‘The Burden is Heavy, We Need the Men’, New Age, 10 September 1959.
3 The ANC asked New Age not to publish the names of women speakers, presumably to protect them from police. M. Nkosi, ‘Natal Women Speak Up’, New Age, 17 September 1959.
4 Original translation. ‘The Burden is Heavy, We Need the Men’, New Age, 10 September 1959.
5 N. Erlank, ‘Gender and Masculinity in South African Nationalist Discourse, 1912–1950’, Feminist Studies, 29, 3 (2003), 653.
6 P. Bonner, ‘Fragmentation and Cohesion in the ANC: The First 70 Years’, in A. Lissoni et al., eds, One Hundred Years of the ANC: Debating Liberation Histories Today (Johannesburg: Wits University Press, 2012), 1–12.
7 F. Ginwala, ‘Women and the African National Congress, 1912–1943’, Agenda, 8 (1990), 77–93.
8 Erlank, ‘Gender and Masculinity’, 653–654.
9 S. Hassim, The ANC Women’s League (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2015), 29.
10 D. Gaitskell, ‘Devout Domesticity? A Century of African Women’s Christianity in South Africa’, in C. Walker, ed., Women and Gender in Southern Africa to 1945 (Cape Town: David Philip, 1990), 251–272; Erlank, ‘Gender and Masculinity’; M. Healy-Clancy, ‘The Politics of New African Marriage in Segregationist South Africa’, African Studies Review, 57, 2 (September 2014), 7–28.
11 S. Hassim, ‘Texts and Tests of Equality: The Women’s Charters and the Demand for Equality in South African Political History’, Agenda, 28, 2 (2014), 7–18; Hassim, The ANC Women’s League, 33–34.
12 I. Edwards, ‘Shebeen Queens: Illicit Liquor and the Social Structure of Drinking Dens in Cato Manor’, Agenda, 3, 3 (1 January 1988), 75–97; I. Edwards, ‘Cato Manor, June 1959: Men, Women, Crowds, Violence, Politics and History’, in P. Maylam and I. Edwards, eds, The People’s City: African Life in Twentieth-Century Durban (Pietermaritzburg: University of Natal Press, 1996), 102–103.
13 M. Healy-Clancy and J. Hickel, Ekhaya: The Politics of Home in KwaZulu-Natal (Pietermaritzburg: University of KwaZulu-Natal Press, 2014).
14 On the latter, see S. Hassim, ‘Reinforcing Conservatism: An Analysis of the Politics of the Inkatha Women’s Brigade’, Agenda, 2 (1988), 3–16; S. Hassim, ‘Family, Motherhood and Zulu Nationalism: The Politics of the Inkatha Women’s Brigade’, Feminist Review, 43 (1993), 1–25; T. Waetjen, Workers and Warriors: Masculinity and the Struggle for Nation in South Africa (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2004); J. Kelly, ‘“Women Were Not Supposed to Fight”: The Gendered Uses of Martial and Moral Zuluness during UDlame, 1990–1994’, in J. Bender Shetler, ed., Gendering Ethnicity in African Women’s Lives (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2015), 178–205.
15 J. Wright, ‘Control of Women’s Labour in the Zulu Kingdom’, in J.B. Peires, ed., Before and After Shaka: Papers in Nguni History, (Grahamstown: Rhodes University, 1981), 82–99; J. Guy, ‘Gender Oppression in Precapitalist Societies’, in Walker, Women and Gender in Southern Africa to 1945, 33–47.
16 S. Maphalala, Aspects of Zulu Rural Life during the Nineteenth Century (KwaDlangezwa: University of Zululand, 1985); J. Weir, ‘Chiefly Women and Women’s Leadership in Pre-Colonial Southern Africa’, in N. Gasa, ed., Women in South African History (Cape Town: HSRC Press, 2007); S. Ndlovu, ‘A Reassessment of Women’s Power in the Zulu Kingdom’, in B. Carton, J. Laband and J. Sithole, eds, Zulu Identities: Being Zulu, Past and Present (Scottsville: University of KwaZulu-Natal Press, 2008), 111–121.
17 K. Atkins, The Moon Is Dead! Give Us Our Money!: The Cultural Origins of an African Work Ethic, Natal, South Africa, 1843–1900 (Portsmouth: Heinemann, 1993); S. Hanretta, ‘Women, Marginality and the Zulu State: Women’s Institutions and Power in the Early Nineteenth Century’, Journal of African History, 39, 3 (1998), 389–415; Healy-Clancy and Hickel, Ekhaya. This is also true for longue durée histories of motherhood and marriage outside of South Africa. E. Osborn, Our New Husbands Are Here: Households, Gender, and Politics in a West African State from the Slave Trade to Colonial Rule (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2011); L. Semley, ‘Public Motherhood in West Africa as Theory and Practice’, Gender & History, 24, 3 (2012), 600–616; Rhiannon Stephens, A History of African Motherhood: The Case of Uganda, 700–1900 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2015).
18 On the hybrid history of one chiefdom in southern Natal, see N. Cele, ‘Building a Community on the Zulu Frontier: The History of the Machi Chieftaincy from the Early 19th Century to 1948’ (PhD thesis, Michigan State University, 2006).
19 L. Kuper, ‘Rights and Riots in Natal’, Africa South, 4, 2 (March 1960), 20–26; J. Yawitch, ‘Natal 1959: The Women’s Protests’ (Conference on the History of Opposition in South Africa, University of the Witwatersrand, 1978); C. Walker, Women and Resistance in South Africa (London: Onyx Press, 1982); J. Wells, We Now Demand! The History of Women’s Resistance to Pass Laws in South Africa (Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press, 1993).
20 S. Hassim, Women’s Organizations and Democracy in South Africa: Contesting Authority (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2006), 35–36; N. Gasa, ‘Feminisms, Motherisms, Patriarchies and Women’s Voices in the 1950s’, in Gasa, Women in South African History, 207–229.
21 M. Healy-Clancy, ‘The Family Politics of the Federation of South African Women: A History of Public Motherhood in Women's Antiracist Activism,’ Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 42, no. 4 (2017): 843–66.
22 ‘Natal Women Speak Up’, New Age, 17 September 1959.
23 R. Morrell, ‘The Times of Change: Men and Masculinity in South Africa’, in Robert Morrell, ed., Changing Men in Southern Africa (Pietermaritzburg: University of Natal Press, 2001), 3–37.
24 O. Oyěwùmí, The Invention of Women: Making an African Sense of Western Gender Discourses (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997); B. Carton, Blood from Your Children: The Colonial Origins of Generational Conflict in South Africa (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 2000); T, McClendon, Genders and Generations Apart: Labor Tenants and Customary Law in Segregation-Era South Africa, 1920s to 1940s (Portsmouth: Heinemann, 2002); N. Achebe, Farmers, Traders, Warriors, and Kings: Female Power and Authority in Northern Igboland, 1900–1960 (Portsmouth: Heinemann, 2005); M. Healy-Clancy, A World of Their Own: A History of South Africa Women’s Education (Scottsville: University of KwaZulu-Natal Press, 2013).
25 Morrell, Changing Men in Southern Africa.
26 B. Bozzoli, ‘Marxism, Feminism, and South African Studies’, Journal of Southern African Studies, 9, 2 (1983), 139–171.
27 Carton, Laband, and Sithole, Zulu Identities.
28 Morrell, ‘The Times of Change’, 12.
29 E. Unterhalter, ‘The Work of the Nation: Heroic Masculinity in South African Autobiographical Writing of the Anti-Apartheid Struggle’, European Journal of Development Research, 12, 2 (2000), 157.
30 For women’s regiments, see, for instance, the testimonies of Maziyana ka Mahlabeni, in: C. de B Webb and J. B Wright, eds., The James Stuart Archive of Recorded Oral Evidence Relating to the History of the Zulu and Neighbouring Peoples, vol. 2 (Pietermaritzburg: University of Natal Press, 1979). Mtshayankomo ka Magolwana in: C. de B Webb and J. B Wright, The James Stuart Archive Of Recorded Oral Evidence Relating to the History of the Zulu and Neighbouring Peoples, vol. 4 (Pietermaritzburg: University of Natal Press, 1986) and Ngidi ka Mcikaziswa in: John B Wright, ed., The James Stuart Archive of Recorded Oral Evidence Relating to the History of the Zulu and Neighbouring Peoples, vol. 5 (Pietermaritzburg: University of Natal Press, 2001). Other testimonies refer to women’s fighting less explicitly. C. de B. Webb and J. Wright, eds, The James Stuart Archive of Recorded Oral Evidence Relating to the History of the Zulu and Neighbouring Peoples.
31 H. Bradford, ‘“We Are Now the Men”: Women’s Beer Protests in the Natal Countryside, 1929’, in B. Bozzoli, ed., Class, Community, and Conflict: South African Perspectives (Johannesburg: Ravan Press, 1987), 292–323; L. Jarvis, ‘Gender, Violence and Home in the Nazareth Baptist Church, 1906–1939’, in Healy-Clancy and Hickel, Ekhaya, 107–130.
32 J. Beall, et al., ‘African Women in the Durban Struggle, 1985–1986: Towards a Transformation of Roles?’, in G. Moss and I. Obery, eds, South African Review 4 (Johannesburg: Ravan Press, 1987), 93–103; J. Cock, Colonels & Cadres: War & Gender in South Africa (Cape Town: Oxford University Press, 1991); K. Miller, ‘Moms with Guns’, African Arts, 42, 2 (Summer 2009), 68–75; E. Bridger, ‘From “Mother of the Nation” to “Lady Macbeth”: Winnie Mandela and Perceptions of Female Violence in South Africa, 1985–91’, Gender & History, 27, 2 (2015), 446–464; Kelly, ‘“Women Were Not Supposed to Fight”’.
33 Original Emphasis: Erlank, ‘Gender and Masculinity’, 656.
34 Edwards, ‘Cato Manor, June 1959’.
35 ANC Natal president A.W.G. Champion refused to commit to the ANCYL’s Program of Action and the memories of earlier passive resistance arrests and the violence of 1949 were still fresh in many minds in Natal. When Luthuli succeeded Champion in May 1951, he faced severe criticism from the ANC for Natal’s inadequate preparations. S. Couper, Albert Luthuli: Bound by Faith (Scottsville, South Africa: University of KwaZulu-Natal Press, 2010), 55; Tom Lodge, Black Politics in South Africa since 1945 (London and New York: Longman, 1983), 45, 60; Goolam Vahed, ‘“Gagged and Trussed Rather Securely by the Law”: The 1952 Defiance Campaign in Natal’, Journal of Natal and Zulu History, 31, 2 (2013), 68–89.
36 J. Soske, Internal Frontiers: African Nationalism and the Indian Diaspora in Twentieth-Century South Africa (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2017), 10.
37 Walker, Women and Resistance in South Africa, 186.
38 ‘60 Iconic Women – The people behind the 1956 Women's March to Pretoria,’ Mail & Guardian 25 August 2016 https://mg.co.za/article/2016-08-25-60-iconic-women-the-people-behind-the-1956-womens-march-to-pretoria [accessed 27 July 2017].
39 Ethekwini Living Legends Award 2016, http://ethekwinilivinglegends.com/portfolio-items/alzina-zondi/; Alzina Zondi, interview with Thandeka Majola and Jill Kelly, Lamontville, 10 May 2019. [accessed 27 July 2017].
40 ‘60 Iconic Women’.
41 A. Luthuli, Let My People Go (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1962), 194.
42 ‘An Unpleasing Prospect’, Daily News, 29 June 1959. Both Walker and Yawitch posit 50,000 at the stadium, but their sources cannot be verified. Walker, Women and Resistance in South Africa, 233; Yawitch, ‘Natal 1959’, 209.
43 Walker, Women and Resistance in South Africa; Edwards, ‘Cato Manor, June 1959’; S. Mkhize, ‘Contexts, Resistance Crowds and Mass Mobilisation: A Comparative Analysis of Anti-Apartheid Politics in Pietermaritzburg during the 1950s and 1980s’ (MA thesis, University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 1998).
44 Edwards, ‘Cato Manor, June 1959’.
45 Yawitch, ‘Natal 1959’.
46 P. Delius, ‘Sebatakgomo: Migrant Organization, the ANC and the Sekhukhuneland Revolt’, Journal of Southern African Studies, 15, 4 (1989), 581–615; S. Zondi, ‘Peasant Struggles of the 1950s: GaMatlala and Zeerust’, in South African Democracy Education Trust, eds, The Road to Democracy in South Africa, vol. 1 [1960–1970] (Cape Town: Zebra Press, 2004), 147–175. The fictional account of Lauretta Ngcobo highlights migrant connections in Natal: L. Ngcobo, And They Didn’t Die: A Novel (New York: Braziller, 1991).
47 Margaret Jaca and Maria Nonhlanhla Mbhele, interview with Thandeka Majola and Jill Kelly, Nokweja, 20 June 2018; Qondozi Dlamini, interview with Thandeka Majola and Jill Kelly, Hlokozi, 5 June 2018; Thanduyise Chiliza, interview with Thandeka Majola and Jill Kelly, Hlokozi, 22 March 2019.
48 M.P. Naicker, ‘People’s Upsurge in Natal’, New Age, 6 August 1959.
49 ‘Natal Women’, New Age, 15 October 1959.
50 M.P. Naicker, ‘People’s Revolt in Natal’, New Age, 20 August 1959.
51 Yawitch, ‘Natal 1959’.
52 These attorneys included Rowley Arenstein, N.T. Naicker, J.N. Singh, and clerk M.B. Yengwa. M.B. Yengwa, draft autobiography, M.B. Yengwa Papers, Box 3, Albert Luthuli Museum.
53 M.P. Naicker, ‘Spread the Struggle—Lutuli: Congress Conference for September 6’, New Age, 27 August 1959.
54 Yawitch, ‘Natal 1959’.
55 M. Nkosi, ‘Natal Women Speak Up’, New Age, 17 September 1959.
56 Walker, Women and Resistance in South Africa, 234.
57 South African Institute of Race Relations, Report on the ANC Conference Held in Durban on the 12th and 13th December, 1959, AD2186, Wits Historical Papers.
58 Bertha Mkhize, with A. Manson and D. Collins, KCAV 151, Oral History Programme, Killie Campbell Africana Library.
59 Alzina Zondi, interview with Thandeka Majola and Jill Kelly, 10 May 2019; M.P. Naicker, ‘Natal Women’s Peaceful Protest but 366 Get Heavy Sentence’, New Age, 15 October 1959; ‘Portrait of a Women’s Leader’, New Age, 29 October 1959; A. Digby, ‘Some Early Black Doctors: A Very Politically Active Cohort’, South African Medical Journal, 97, 8 (August 2007), 577–580.
60 S. Mkhize, ‘“A Setback to the Harmonious Race Relations in This Charming City of Scented Flowers”: The August 1959 Riots in Pietermaritzburg’, Natalia, 42 (2012), 65–79.
61 S. Miescher and L. Lindsay, ‘Introduction: Men and Masculinities in Modern African History’, in S. Miescher and L. Lindsay, eds, Men and Masculinities in Modern Africa (Portsmouth: Heinemann, 2003), 1–29.
62 Naicker, ‘People’s Revolt in Natal’.
63 Ibid.
64 ‘Trouble in Natal’, Drum, October 1959.
65 Luthuli, Let My People Go, 196.
66 M.P. Naicker, ‘Batons, Gas Again Used on Women’, New Age, 3 September 1959.
67 For instance, police interrogation of Margaret Mncadi and Ixopo officials’ refusal to meet with ‘minors’ all point to the Natal Native Code definition of women as minors of their husbands or fathers. A total of 366 in Ixopo were arrested under provisions of the Natal Native Code in October 1959. See ‘Natal Women’, New Age, 15 October 1959; ‘Wild Scenes as Women Freed’, New Age, 22 October 1959.
68 Mkhize, ‘“A Setback to the Harmonious Race Relations”’.
69 ‘Trouble in Natal’, Drum, October 1959.
70 ‘Wild Scenes as Women Freed’, New Age, 22 October 1959.
71 All lyrics here and below are presented in original translation, but orthography updated. ‘The Burden is Heavy, We Need the Men’, New Age, 10 September 1959.
72 R. Finnegan, Oral Literature in Africa (Cambridge: Open Book Publishers, 2012), 266.
73 J. Cherry, ‘Emzabalazweni: Singing the Language of Struggle, Past and Present’, in Mirjana N. Dedaić, ed, Singing, Speaking and Writing Politics: South African Political Discourses (Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company), 221–246.
74 O. Jolaosho, ‘Cross-Circulations and Transnational Solidarity: Historicizing the US Anti-Apartheid Movement through Song’, Safundi, 13, 3–4 (2012), 318–320.
75 K. Mtshali and G. Hlongwane, ‘Contextualizing South Africa’s Freedom Songs: A Critical Appropriation of Lee Hirsch’s Amandla!: A Revolution in Four-Part Harmony’, Journal of Black Studies, 45, 6 (2014), 511; O. Jolaosho, ‘Anti-Apartheid Freedom Songs: Then and Now’, Smithsonian Folkways Magazine, Spring 2014.
76 We do have lyrics documented in 1986, but given diversity in the 1950s alone we cannot assume the song maintained its lyrics across the decades. Song book, K2145, Krugersdorp Residents’ Organisations and 4 Others v. The Minister of Law and Order and 2 Others, 1986, Wits Historical Papers.
77 Cherry, ‘Emzabalazweni’, 228.
78 Original translation, updated orthography. H. Bloom, Transvaal Episode (London: Collins, 1956), 281. Banned for 30 years, the novel has been the subject of much literary debate and criticism. While Bloom was involved with the Congress of Democrats and connected to the SACP, he falls back on racist tropes. The novel animalises Africans and treats violent resistance as irrational. See, for instance, J.A. Kearney, ‘Harry Bloom’s Transvaal Episode: Unbanned and Unread?’, English in Africa, 24, 2 (1997), 69–85; D. Maughan Brown, ‘“Like a Leaf on the Stream”: Harry Bloom’s “Transvaal Episode”’, English in Africa, 11, 1 (1984), 41–64.
79 T. Fleming, ‘“King Kong, Bigger than Cape Town”: A History of a South African Musical’ (PhD dissertation, University of Texas, 2009), 79.
80 Original translation but updated orthography. P. Seeger, G. Carawan and G. Morris, ‘Asikatali (We Do Not Care if We Go to Prison)’, South African Freedom Songs, Folkways Records Album EPC-601 (New York: Folkways Records and Service Corp, 1960); Jolaosho, ‘Cross-Circulations and Transnational Solidarity’. It is documented similarly in 1986: Song book, K2145, Krugersdorp Residents.
81 C. Brown, ‘A “Man” in the Village Is a “Boy” in the Workplace: Colonial Racism, Worker Militance, and Igbo Notions of Masculinity in the Nigerian Coal Industry 1930–1945’, in Miescher and Lindsay Men and Masculinities in Modern Africa, 156–174.
82 ‘Eiselen Reports on Situation in Natal’, Daily News, 21 August 1959.
83 Debby Gaitskell and Elaine Unterhalter, ‘Mothers of the Nation: A Comparative Analysis of the Nation, Race, and Motherhood in Afrikaner Nationalism and the African National Congress’, in Nira Yuval-Davis and Floya Anthias, eds, Women-Nation-State (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1989), 58–78; Hassim, Women’s Organizations and Democracy in South Africa, 37; Soske, Internal Frontiers.
84 P. Landau, ‘The ANC, MK, and “The Turn to Violence” (1960–1962)’, South African Historical Journal, 64, 3 (2012), 542.
85 R.T. Vinson and B. Carton, ‘Albert Luthuli’s Private Struggle: How an Icon of Peace Came to Accept Sabotage in South Africa’, The Journal of African History, 59, 1 (2018), 69–96.
86 J. Zug, The Guardian: The History of South Africa’s Extraordinary Anti-Apartheid Newspaper (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 2007), 2–5.
87 N. Masilela, ‘Theorizing the Modernist Moment of the New African Intellectuals’, in M. Mnguni, ed., New African Intellectuals and New African Political Thought in the Twentieth Century (New York: Waxman, 2015), 25–110.
88 Healy-Clancy, ‘The Politics of New African Marriage’.
89 Alzina Zondi, interview with Thandeka Majola and Jill Kelly, Lamontville, 10 May 2019; A.S. Chetty in Raymond Suttner and Jeremy Cronin, 30 Years of the Freedom Charter (Johannesburg: Ravan Press, 1986), 49.
90 See John Pule Motshabi’s reference to this in Landau, ‘The ANC, MK, and “The Turn to Violence”’, 548; Suttner and Cronin, 30 Years of the Freedom Charter, 49.
91 Zug, The Guardian, 155–156.
92 Couper, Albert Luthuli, 82.
93 For instance, see the photo on the front page of New Age, 18 June 1959 of a Pietermaritzburg Congress meeting with placards reading ‘Lift Luthuli Ban’, ‘Sifuna Luthuli’, ‘Sifuna uLuthuli Asimeli Asikhulumele’, ‘Hands off Our Leaders’, and ‘Let Luthuli Speak’.
94 R.T. Vinson, Albert Luthuli (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2018), 67.
95 Zug, The Guardian, 155–156.
96 Luthuli, Let My People Go, 75.
97 Ibid., 26.
98 Vinson, Albert Luthuli, 22.
99 Luthuli, Let My People Go.
100 Vinson, Albert Luthuli, 27.
101 Ibid., 68; P. Rule, M. Aitken and J. van Dyk, Nokukhanya, Mother of Light (Braamfontein: Grail, 1993), 96–101.
102 Rule, Aitken and Van Dyk, Nokukhanya, Mother of Light, 108.
103 A. Luthuli, ‘The African Women’s Demonstrations in Natal’ [6 September 1959], Liberation, 38 (1959), 21–24.
104 Ibid.
105 Luthuli, Let My People Go, 64.
106 Luthuli, ‘The African Women’s Demonstrations in Natal’.
107 Albert Luthuli, ‘Women in the Freedom Struggle’, African National Congress Women’s League National Conference, in Fighting Talk, 13, 7 (September 1959), 3.
108 Original Emphasis: Luthuli, Let My People Go, 192.
109 Bozzoli, ‘Marxism, Feminism, and South African Studies’; J. Guy, ‘An Accommodation of Patriarchs: Theophilus Shepstone and the Foundations of the System of Native Administration in Natal’, Journal of Natal and Zulu History, 32, 1 (2018), 81–99.
110 A. Luthuli, ‘Word of the President-General Concerning Riots which Occurred as a Result of the Resistance Staged by Women in Natal’, 17 August 1959, INL 1/4/14 446/14/6D(2), National Archives Repository.
111 Luthuli, ‘The African Women’s Demonstrations in Natal’.
112 Unterhalter, ‘The Work of the Nation’, 173.
113 ‘200 Delegates at ANC Conference’, New Age, 29 October 1959.
114 Luthuli, Let My People Go, 19.
115 B. Magubane et al., ‘The Turn to Armed Struggle’, in South African Democracy Education Trust, ed, The Road to Democracy in South Africa, vol. 1, 56.
116 Landau, ‘The ANC, MK, and “The Turn to Violence”’, 544.
117 Interview with Denis Goldberg, conducted by Peter Delius, London, 24 August 1994, Wits History Workshop, cited in Magubane et al., ‘The Turn to Armed Struggle’, 57.
118 Landau, ‘The ANC, MK, and “The Turn to Violence”’, 555.
119 Nelson Mandela, ‘I am Prepared to Die: Nelson Mandela's Statement from the Dock at the Opening of the Defence Case in the Rivonia Trial,’ 20 April 1964, Nelson Mandela Foundation Archive, http://db.nelsonmandela.org/speeches/pub_view.asp?pg=item&ItemID=NMS010&txtstr=prepared%20to%20die [Accessed 27 July 2017].
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Jill E. Kelly
JILL E. KELLY is Associate Professor of History at Southern Methodist University and Research Associate at the University of Cape Town. She is the author of To Swim with Crocodiles: Land, Violence, and Belonging in South Africa, 1800–1996 (Michigan State University Press, 2018 and University of KwaZulu-Natal Press, 2019). Her research has been supported by a Fulbright Scholar Fellowship (2019), an American Council of Learned Societies Fellowship (2015) and the Fulbright-Hays Doctoral Dissertation Abroad Fellowship (2010). Her work has appeared in African Historical Review, Journal of Southern African Studies and the edited collection Gendering Ethnicity in African Women’s Lives (University of Wisconsin Press, 2015).