INCOMPLETE KNOWLEDGE AND THE CHANCES OF A CONSTRUCTIVE MASTERING

Abstract

In spite of incomplete knowledge we are permanently forced to act in complex real-life situations. First, a modern concept of information, the non-trivial transition from information to knowledge, patterns of missing knowledge, and the concept of perspective notions are studied. The main sections review some guidelines for action under incomplete information. A modern view of the concepts of holism and wholeness reveals that (in contrast to some critics) general system theory does not require any metaphysical assumption or previously accepted worldview. The concepts of holism and wholeness, as well as general system theory, are well-founded, even under strict criteria.

Keywords:

• Complex real-life decisions
• general system theory
• holism
• incomplete knowledge
• perspective notions
• pragmatic information
• wholeness.

Notes

1. Cross-connections of the concept of pragmatic information to modern physics will be discussed in How to Deal with Perspective Notions.

2. Synonyms: potential, virtual, or latent information.

3. For the historical development, the reasons underlying the concept, and the possibility to quantify pragmatic information see Gernert (1996); also see several articles in the contributed volume edited by Kornwachs and Jacoby (1996), and a concise presentation given by C. F. von Weizsäcker (2002, chap. 5.7).

4. Starting from the comprehensive concept, the classical theory can be derived as a special case if the necessary valuation is performed just under the aspects of information-transmission technology, which means that merely technological criteria (like speed and reliability of transmission) are relevant.

5. For arguments in detail see, e.g., C. F. von Weizsäcker (2002, chap. 11.1).

6. Pairs of observables for which the uncertainty principle is valid are termed complementary in quantum theory. Following Pattee (1993), structure and function are complementary, too; when a section of the real world is modeled more than once, using different methods, then the quality of predictions and the transparency of findings can be complementary (Gernert, 1994).

7. Cf. Carrier (1996), Stegmüller (1987, vol. 2, p. 264; vol. 3, p. 294), Chalmers (1982, chap. 3.3 and 3.4).

8. For numerous examples and diagrams see Vester (1976).

9. For the role of a suitable problem representation see Gernert (1994).

10. This phenomenon of the natural context can obscure the fact that one really has to do with a perspective notion, and thus act as a cognitive blockade.

11. A diagram showing the dependence of pragmatic information from novelty and confirmation is given by E. U. and Chr. von Weizsäcker (1984, p. 176) and by C. F. von Weizsäcker (2002, p. 202, Figure 1).

12. Graph grammars, including those defined for hierarchical graphs (cf. Gernert, 1996, with references).

13. Atmanspacher and Scheingraber (1990): Kurths et al. (1994); for details and discussion see also Gernert (2000).

14. For the history of general system theory see L. von Bertalanffy (1975, chap. 12), Laszlo (1972), Járos (2002); for a general overview see L. von Bertalanffy (1969, 1975).

15. For further remarks on the part-whole problem see General System Theory.

16. This article focuses on far-reaching consequences, also outside physics. For holism in modern physics see also Laszlo (2002).

17. For a detailed discussion see Laszlo (1996).

18. Abridged from Vester (1993, pp. 24–25).

19. Of course, nobody will regard this useful tool as a panacea, nor expect a mass production of top experts.

20. More details on these points and all the related political problems are beyond the scope of this article.

21. Here the term “science” is used in the broader sense, including formal, cultural, social, and applied sciences (Wissenschaften).

22. Peter Glotz (2002) explicitly criticizes “the hatred against natural sciences.”

23. Just the other way around, instead of demonizing physics, we should adopt its results. The position that we are not observers, but participants, firmly supported by quantum theory, should finally find its way into the debates on ethics and responsibility.

24. Kuhn's concept of paradigm change must necessarily be complemented by the (less known) concept of research programs in the sense of Lakatos (Chalmers, 1982, chap. 7).