Virtual football violence: exploring the resurgence of football’s deviant leisure cultures in England

ABSTRACT

This paper examines the resurgence of deviant leisure cultures in football, with a focus on virtual football violence. Despite advancements in curbing violence in UK football stadiums, new challenges emerge online. By analysing social media discourse from three English Premier League matches in 2022, the study reveals the prevalence of several forms of virtual violence, including threats of physical and sexual violence, emotional violence, and discriminatory violence. The research highlights the resurgence of ‘traditional’ norms of masculinity, aggression, and misogyny facilitated by anonymity in online spaces. Paradoxically, the results show that fans engage in derogatory language while simultaneously condemning similar actions by others. This phenomenon is particularly evident in the category of discriminatory violence, where comments are frequently challenged, indicating a ‘raising of consciousness’ and a growing intolerance to certain forms of discriminatory language. However, despite some evidence of social consciousness and pushback against discriminatory language, the prevalence of virtual violence remains concerning on multiple levels. This underscores the need for continued efforts to promote respectful discourse and foster inclusive environments online.

KEYWORDS:

• Hooligan
• football
• violence
• netnography
• Twitter

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Argyro Elisavet Manoli

Dr Argyro Elisavet Manoli is an Associate Professor of Marketing and Management in the University of Bergamo. Following a career as a marketer in the sports industry, and having worked for English, Spanish and Greek football clubs, as well as international sport events and federations. Prof. Manoli begun her academic career in the UK, working for Loughborough University and Teesside University. Her research interests focus on two broad areas, marketing communications management and integrity management in the context of sport. Within these two themes, she has published extensively in highly esteemed journals. Her research has been also awarded funding from prestigious institutions, such as the Economic Social Research Council, the European Union, the European Commission and the British Academy. Prof. Manoli was an academic expert on the European Commission Expert Group for Sport Integrity and is the author of the EU Report Mapping Corruption in EU Member States. Her research has been presented in the European Parliament and in numerous highly regarded academic conferences, as well as regularly cited in public policy. She is the Associate Editor and sits on the editorial board of a number of prestigious journals.

Kevin Dixon

Dr Kevin Dixon is a social scientist specialising in the sociology of sport, exercise, leisure, and health. He was awarded his PhD from the University of Staffordshire in 2011 and from this published his first monograph Consuming Football in Late Modern Life’ (Routledge, 2013). Kevin has co-authored / edited a further 4 books. Kevin’s research interests are loosely related to the theme Sport and Civic Responsibility. This theme covers a breadth of important social issues relevant to the role of sport in public health, criminal justice, education, identity formation and maintenance, and social inclusion. In keeping with this theme, his latest book contract with Routledge publishers is titled Sport, Crime and Society. As a measure of research quality, Dr Dixon has been returned in the Research Excellence Framework on two occasions. In 2014, he was returned under unit 22 Social Work and Social Policy. This Teesside University submission was ranked joint 5th in the country from 62 submissions. In 2020, Kevin was returned under unit 24 Sport and Exercise Sciences, Leisure, and Tourism. This submission placed 12th from 61 submissions.

John Hie

John Hie is a Higher Education Sport Lecturer and Course Leader in Loughborough College, lecturing across a variety of higher education sport subjects with overall course leading responsibility. Prior to his appointment, he was a postgraduate research student in Loughborough University, investigating the effects on social capital due to instances of sporting corruption. John conducted his PhD research in Loughborough University with a fully funded scholarship and has since published his work in highly esteemed journals. John has been involved in educational services for over 10 years, having led educational projects for different levels, ranging from secondary to executive education.

Aimee Middleton

Aimèe Middleton completed her studies in Loughborough College in 2022, before embarking on further studies in Sheffield Hallam University. Her interest in sport science and in the various ways in which social and digital media inform and influence the sport ecosystem has driven her research thus far, enriching thus this ever-developing field of study. Aimèe has also lately developed a keen interest in physiotherapy and kinesiology, having gained multiple qualifications on the topic in the past few years.

Nicola Hague

Nicola Hague is a Lecturer in Social Sciences in York St John University. Nicola completed her undergraduate PE and Youth Sports degree at York St John University, graduating with first class honours. From there, she did an MSc by Research at York St John, focusing on the sociology of sport and more specifically, the transition of youth academy footballers from school into the academy environment. She is currently almost at the completion stage of her PhD at York St John, once again focusing on professional football and how players navigate the journey into retirement. Whilst undertaking her MSc by Research and PhD, she has been a research assistant and visiting lecturer at York St John and has since worked at Loughborough College as a Lecturer in the Sociology of Sport. In her spare time, she is an avid follower of many sports, particularly football and motorsports, such as the Moto GP and British Superbike Championships. Nicola has published her research in highly esteemed journals and reports.