Using life-history maps to support students in connecting theory to practice: a case study of a social work teaching intervention

ABSTRACT

Theory is essential to the professional knowledge base of social work, and the ability to understand, apply, and analyze theory in practice is central to professional capabilities and competence. This places social work education in the intersection of understanding, analyzing, and applying theoretical knowledge, a complex task which requires more than the transmission of information and extends to building skills in analysis, reflection, and critical thought. This article explores the implementation of life history mapping as a formative task to support undergraduate students connecting theory to practice in a second-year human development module as part of a qualifying training programme in the United Kingdom. Drawing upon the concepts of constructive alignment and Bloom’s taxonomy of learning, an action research method was applied to review existing teaching and learning approaches alongside learning outcomes. The article is structured around the four phases of action research: planning, action, observation, and reflection. Findings indicate positive outcomes with students reporting how life-history mapping has supported their ability to critique theories and models of development through connection to their lived experience, alongside enhancing their personal growth, empathy, and practical assessment skills.

KEYWORDS:

• Social work education
• theory
• human development
• constructive alignment
• life history map

Theory in social work offers a systematic way of organizing knowledge and research to assist in understanding and contesting ideas, and offers explanations regarding people, behaviors, difficulties faced, and interactions with the environment or other structures (Payne, 2014). Theory is a core element of the professional toolkit, whereby social workers must be able to draw upon a range of theoretical perspectives to inform practice and navigate complexity (Harms & Connolly, 2019; Healy, 2014) and be able to justify their actions, decisions, and approaches based on established theories and methods (Teater, 2011).

The ability to connect theory to practice and interrogate the relevance of theory in different settings has been outlined in both social work education curriculum and professional practice standards throughout the world. As outlined by the International Association of Schools of Social Work and the International Federation of Social Work in the Global Standards for Social Work Education and Training (2020, pp. 11–12), education programmes must include ‘knowledge of theories of social work, social sciences, humanities and indigenous knowledges’ and programmes must prepare students to ‘integrate theory, ethics, research/knowledge in practice’. This is articulated alongside the recognition of the negative and harmful effects of colonization and educational imperialism whereby ‘the theoretical perspectives and practice methods, techniques and skills developed in the Global North should not be transported to the Global South without critical examinations of their suitability and potential effectiveness for the local contexts’ (International Association of Schools of Social Work & International Federation of Social Work [IASSW & IFSW], 2020, p. 6). This highlights the importance of critically evaluating theory, not just being able to remember and describe the core principles or foundations of a theory.

The importance of theory for social work education and practice is also evident at a national level. Competence six of the Social Work Registration Board in Aotearoa New Zealand requires social workers to have ‘competence to understand and articulate social work theories, indigenous practice knowledge, other relevant theories, and social work practice methods and models’ (Social Work Registration Board, 2023). The professional standards set out by Social Work England (2019), 4.3 states social workers must ‘Keep my practice up to date and record how I use research, theories, and frameworks to inform my practice and my professional judgement’, while the Australian Association of Social Workers (2013, pp. 12–3) require social workers to uphold professional standard 4.2 ‘Understand and articulate social work and other relevant theories and concepts’. This includes the ability to ‘demonstrate a critical understanding of specific social work theories underpinning social work practice at all levels’ and ‘Understand and articulate how and when theories, knowledge bases and knowledge sources inform practice’.

It has been argued, however, that social work students often approach theory with trepidation, anxiety, or fear which can become an obstacle to learning (Thompson, 2022). Both practitioners and students face challenges in translating theory to practice (Harms & Connolly, 2019); therefore, a key challenge in social work education becomes supporting students in understanding the role and usefulness of theory by presenting ideas in meaningful, empowering ways to breakdown anxieties and build confidence in using theory and theorizing practice (Thompson, 2022).

As a social work educator teaching on an undergraduate qualifying degree and a post-qualifying framework for continued professional development in the United Kingdom, the author conducted a review of the teaching methods and learning outcomes for a second-year module, Communication and Development Across the Lifespan, a module which draws heavily upon human development theory for social work practice. The review was underpinned by the teaching and learning theories of constructive alignment (Biggs & Tang, 2011) and Bloom’s (1956) Taxonomy of learning. Constructive alignment incorporates the principle of active learning on the basis that students create meaning and understanding through participation, highlighting the limitations of a transmission model of teaching based on a didactive transfer of knowledge from lecturer to student. The emphasis on alignment argues that learning tasks and assessments should map on to the learning outcomes and what students are expected to achieve upon completion of the programme or module (Biggs & Tang, 2011). Therefore, any review or development of a programme or module should start with clearly articulated outcomes which then determine the types of teaching methods and activities incorporated in the learning process (Teater, 2011).

Bloom’s taxonomy (1956) is a hierarchical scale proposing six categories of learning with increasing cognitive complexity (Stewart, 2021). 1. Knowledge including the ability to recall facts or processes. 2. Comprehension referring to the ability to describe or explain material and ideas. 3. Application through the ability to apply information and knowledge to concrete examples. 4. Analysis demonstrated through comparing, contrasting, and examining relationships between ideas to formulate debate. 5. Synthesis, the ability to construct unique responses integrating a range of sources. 6. Evaluation, ‘Making critical judgements based on a sound knowledge base’ (Teater, 2011, p. 574), including the ability to appraise the value or worth of information. The taxonomy is a useful tool for assisting educators in determining learning goals and the level of expertise expected from students in accordance with the relevant category when developing learning outcomes (Stewart, 2021).

Action research

This article reports on an interpretive study drawing upon action research design whereby a teaching intervention (Life history mapping) was developed through a cycle of ‘learning in and through action and reflection’ to support students in connecting theory to practice (McNiff, 2017, p. 24). Action research follows four key phases starting with planning, action, observation, and reflection. The phases operate in a cyclical nature, with each phase building on from one another for continuous improvement (McNiff, 2017). The action research adopted a case study approach to engage in an in-depth analysis of the intervention which could be experienced and observed in a real-world context (Grauer, 2012; Yin, 2009) rather than within a controlled environment as is needed for experimental design such as randomized controlled trials.

The use of case studies in education research has been prominent since the 1970s and remains an important approach with the ability to account for the complexity of the individuals, organizations, and resources in educational settings which is not easily captured with quantitative measures (Hamilton & Corbett-Whittier, 2013). Most appropriate for working with a small data set, a case study approach can utilize a range of different techniques and tools for gathering and analysing data to illustrate broader lessons that can be learned. In educational research, topics have commonly included ‘aspects of teaching and learning, implementation of policy, curriculum development or issues of personal and professional relevance’ making this approach relevant for the current study which is focused on a teaching and learning intervention (Hamilton & Corbett-Whittier, 2013, p. 10). Furthermore, case study design was considered appropriate as the researcher was imbedded in the host institution with existing connections to students and staff, making the context accessible and open for inquiry (Stake, 1995). Minimal burden and risk associated with participation were determined as the intervention aligned with existing learning objectives, approved scheduled teaching and learning time, and overall course content. As demonstrated in Figure 1, the remainder of this article is structured according to the four action research phases.

Figure 1. Action research cycle.

Phase one: planning

Applying knowledge of constructive alignment (Biggs & Tang, 2011; Teater, 2011), a review of the second-year social work module Communication and Development Across the Lifespan began with consideration of learning objectives to ensure any teaching interventions or tasks for improved learning would address the aims of the module and what students are expected to achieve, rather than being influenced by the author’s personal curiosity or convenience. As the author was in the dual role of researcher and teacher but had not delivered the module before, four key sources of evidence were used to determine student needs and areas for improvement within the module.

1. Meeting with previous module coordinators and tutors who had taught onto the module. Teaching staff reported that students struggled to connect theories to real-world examples, relying on overly descriptive accounts rather than application or analysis in their assignments.

2. Reviewing assignment marks for the final assessment. Meeting marking criteria 1 ‘Analysis of the relevance of human lifespan development models and theories in relationship to social work practice’ was the weakest across the cohort for the previous academic year.

3. Harnessing a qualitative content analysis methodology (Schreier, 2012) written feedback on the final assessment was reviewed systematically to identify key trends of student strengths and weaknesses. Most commonly, concerns of limited analysis and depth of discussion in the application of theories and models to social work practice were evident with ‘More explicit reference to the reasons why lifespan development theories are useful in social work’, ‘Greater depth of analysis needed’, ‘Minimal substance to discussion’, and ‘a lack of examples’ raised repeatedly. Assessments had been through a process of internal and external moderation to ensure consistency in marking and feedback before the content analysis was conducted, and the author was not involved in the marking of these assignments, reducing the risk of bias in analysing the feedback.

4. Student Feedback Committee. The undergraduate social work programme at the UK-based host institution holds student feedback committees three times per academic year, with student representatives from each year level attending to raise any concerns, comments, and queries from the broader student body pertaining to the course administration, content, and learning experience. Representatives commented on the challenges in connecting theory to practice and analysing theory alongside real-world examples.

All four sources of evidence indicated that students struggled with meeting learning outcome two ‘Apply and analyse their knowledge of human growth and lifespan development theories and models’ aligning with trends in social work education literature which has highlighted similar difficulties faced by students in connecting theory to practice (Boisen & Syers, 2004; Gentle-Genitty et al., 2014). Although students were able to remember and understand core theories by recalling facts and describing key ideas, embodying the first two levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy (1956), evidence of their ability to move into higher levels of cognition through application (level 3) and analysis (level 4) was limited yet required to achieve the learning outcomes.

Phase two: action, life history mapping intervention

To support students to bridge the gap between understanding theory and applying and analyzing the relevance of theory in social work (Learning outcome 2), a formative task was introduced in the first half of the module for the 2022–23 academic year. Alongside lectures and seminars, students were required to create their own life history map (Parker & Bradley, 2014) which they revisited weekly to apply and reflect on the core theories of lifespan development that had been covered in the class and set readings.

Recounting life stories with classroom peers through oral narratives has been explored for unpacking students’ identity and facilitating reflection in social work education (Spector-Mersel, 2017), and spiritual life maps have been developed as a practice approach to operationalize spiritual strengths when engaging in assessment and intervention through a pictorial illustration of an individual’s spiritual journey (Hodge, 2005). Life history mapping, however, is a tool in social work practice which has been used to improve communication between social worker and service user to facilitate participatory assessment processes (Griffiths et al., 2007; Parker & Bradley, 2014). Life history mapping is perceived as a journey that does not focus exclusively on the past, rather it seeks to support the individual to link the past to the present and works to identify both challenges and personal strengths (Strydom & Herbst, 2007). It is a tool for locating the person both in time and space. The process of creating a life history map identifies events deemed significant by the individual and builds a shared understanding of who they are today by exploring what has impacted them or any patterns of change through a visual representation (Parker & Bradley, 2014).

Life history maps help social workers to recognize the personal and social impact life events have on the people they work with, and to ‘become attuned to different cultural and familial and social experiences’ (Wilson et al., 2008, p. 118). Recognising the benefits in rapport building, assessment, and intervention (Parker & Bradley, 2014; Strydom & Herbst, 2007), the life-history mapping exercise was adopted as a teaching tool to support student’s ability to question, compare, and interrogate the relevance and application of lifespan development theories and models to real-world examples by starting with concrete lived experience rather than abstract ideas. This study is unique in terms of exploring how life history mapping can be used as a learning intervention, moving beyond identity exploration, assessment, and intervention to providing a framework for supporting students to analyze and apply theory through connection with lived experience, informed by the argument that students construct meaning and learning through active participation (Biggs & Tang, 2011).

Students were introduced to life-history mapping through set readings before attending their seminar, and time was scheduled in class for developing and revisiting their maps. Further questions for consideration were posed alongside directed study activities, harnessing a flipped classroom model for active engagement in the classroom (Scales, 2017). This process is outlined in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Process of conducting a life history map as a formative assessment.

One month before the final summative assignment was due, students were required to submit a 400-word reflective account based on the life history mapping activity. The formative task asked students to reflect on how the activity supported them to connect lifespan development theories and knowledge to social work practice. Students submitted their 400-word reflective accounts online through Qualtrics. While deemed compulsory as part of their learning for the module, each student was required to give informed consent to having their anonymized 400-words included in the analysis of the intervention by selecting a box to opt-in or opt-out. Students who opted in were then anonymized, and the data were analyzed to assess student perspectives regarding the impact of the intervention on their learning. Submissions where students opted out were excluded from the study and were not consulted until analysis was completed to ensure the findings were not influenced by this cohort.

Ethical considerations: This project was judged to be ethically sound and low risk by the host institution (Project Reference Number: CSESP20212255). Students were informed of University Student Support Services should the activity raise any wellbeing concerns and students were not required to present their maps to peers, recognizing the highly personal nature of the content and that the activity has the potential to raise painful memories or trigger distress (Parker & Bradley, 2014).

Findings

Phase three: observation

Students actively participated in the life-history exercise during scheduled teaching time. Small group discussion was observed, with students using colored pens, graphs, images, and key words in their language of choice for constructing their maps. There was no set structure required, allowing students creative freedom for expression and personalization. This promoted an inclusive approach to education by reducing barriers to learning such as dyslexia or dyscalculia. Students shared examples with the module coordinator (author) to seek clarification on their interpretation and application of theory, informally reporting that the exercise was helping them consider the relevance of lifespan development theory to social work, and to critically reflect on events which shaped their development, enhancing their understanding of change. By observing class dynamics and reflecting on the unsolicited feedback, it was evident that students appreciated the active learning approach rather than a transmission model based on a didactic lecture style of teaching. Of the 21 enrolled students, 13 submitted their 400-word reflections and 6 students granted permission for their work to be analyzed and included in the research.

Content analysis: themes and outcomes

The six submissions which granted informed consent for inclusion of the study were analyzed, adopting a line-by-line qualitative content analysis methodology. First-level line-by-line coding was completed to identify core ideas. These were then grouped to establish central themes and question the connections between said themes (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005; Schreier, 2012).

1). Valuing the exercise for developing professional skills and knowledge.

Although not designed to build practical skills for practice, each of the six students commented on how the activity of life history mapping had developed their understanding of assessment, as well as built their skills in information gathering. Participants highlighted how they intended to carry the tool of life history mapping and their learning into social work practice and future placements.

I will definitely use this activity in my work as a social worker to help the service user reflect and understand specific times in their life. This is important in social work as individuals may be struggling due to past trauma (and) life mapping allows us to identify similarities and difference in each individual that we support. When completing a life map for a service user, I will need to listen to the individual, treat them with respect, dignity and empathy and allow the individual to tell me their story. (Participant one)

Life mapping has shown me how it plays a pivotal role in social work practice. Until I completed my own life map, I did think that it was a tool used in social workers dealing with children and families, but a life map is relevant to all individuals. (Participant five)

As a social worker it is essential, we work to empower individuals. By working with them to help them work through their life map and giving them knowledge of different theories in a way that they can understand this can help to empower them. It is by understanding different situations, strengths, hurdles they may have faced, what has held them back or what can help them to move forward to future goals that are important to them can person centred working be achieved. (Participant six)

2). Critical reflection for personal growth.

The life history mapping exercise offered students the time and space to reflect on their personal growth and identify key milestones and events in their life journey. Enhancing their understanding of self, the exercise was both emotive and insightful to understanding their identity, values, and beliefs.

Since completing this activity it has made me realise and acknowledge certain stages in my life that I wouldn’t have thought about before. I have found this activity very interesting and have valued the opportunity to reflect back on my life. This is not something I would normally do but will continue to do this now as I go forward in my life. During the past 5 years I have had a lot of changes occur in my life that I had not reflected on, for example, grief, a new job, my brother moved to a new country, leaving my job and starting at University. Completing this activity has allowed me time and space to reflect on these changes and in particular how they have made me feel. (Participant one)

I think this activity has helped me to identify what has shaped the person I am and my different life events and to look in depth using three different models which has given me a good starting point to further understand myself, and the models that will enable me to better understand others. (Participant six)

When completing my life map, I quickly realised that there were gaps in dates, or dates I had changed due to not accounting for events that occurred that were difficult for me to process (…) Life mapping in this instance, forced me to think of experiences that had impacted on my feelings. (Participant three)

I can now connect that my responses to stressful situations such as bereavement at an earlier age, has built my resilience in coping with death. (Participant five)

3). Enhanced empathy.

The reflective accounts evidenced student’s extended understanding of difference and diversity, whereby sensitivity and an emphasis on collaborative, person-centered practice was stressed. Reflecting on their experience creating their own map, each student connected the formative task to co-production, whereby excluding a service user from any assessment process was deemed oppressive and disempowering.

It has also made me reflect on how very personal this exercise is, how having a professional complete it without your involvement would feel massively intrusive and why an individual may resist engaging with the exercise. (Participant two)

If a map of someone’s life were to be completed without their co-operation this could disempower them, create a barrier for trust to be built up and certain facts could also be left out which may be significant. (Participant four)

When working with an individual, they should be the focus of the life map. It should reflect their experiences and emotions not the social workers. Life maps help a social worker to communicate with the individual in a person-centred approach to practice (…) this focuses on the voice of the individual, putting them at the centre of the intervention. (Participant five)

I feel that completing a life map together with an individual will promote co-production and partnership working. I feel that completing a life map is also a personal representation of one’s life and should be treated as such. If someone else completed my life map without me, I would feel powerless because it would be someone else’s view of how my life has been mapped out and much information that is important and that has shaped me could be missed. (Participant six)

4). Application and analysis of theory.

All six of the reflective accounts offered detail and insight into the student’s ability to question the relevance of theory through application to lived experience. At times, students found their life-history aligned with theoretical perspectives, while others identified key elements which deviated from models of development. Attachment theory, Erikson stages of psychosocial development theory, Vygotsky sociocultural theory, and Piaget’s theory of cognitive development were noted across the submissions, with students being able to identify and consider limitations of said theories. Students articulated how the application of theory to their life map supported their ability to understand behaviors, explore emotions, and examine factors which create diversity in individual growth and development.

I later revisited the life map and added Erickson’s stages of human development which was useful in understanding my personal development, how life events at critical stages have had an impact on my future life choices and how the stage of “generativity and stagnation” gives some context in understanding the choices that I have made in recent years to be where I am today – contributing to society, being creative and productive! (Participant two)

When completing the life history map, I found the exercise beneficial in reflecting upon Vygotsky’s social learning theory and the impact a person’s community can have on the rest of their well-being. Since completing my life map, I recognise the impact of my environment and support network, and how their behaviours affected me. (Participant three)

Erikson’s development model allows social workers to look at the expected stages of development, this may explain typical instances during a person’s lifespan regarding their feelings and development. Growth and development are, however, not uniform for everyone, this does not consider developmental delays such as autism spectrum disorders, global developmental delay, down syndrome, or fetal alcohol syndrome which may affect competence levels or stages of development. (Participant four)

The stages, even though outlined in Erikson’s or Piaget to apply to everyone, they are not the case for everyone. Lifespan development can be stunted or interrupted by stress, developmental delays cause by illness, or abuse. All children’s ages and the key stages may not coincide; therefore, this should be taken into consideration. (Participant five)

At first, I found it difficult to pinpoint Erikson’s model of life stage development because my life map did not fit with the stages of development. However, it was useful to see how Erikson’s stages fit into my life map including how my life map had different age ranges to what Erickson argues. This encouraged me to ask more questions about this model such as its limitations and can we really set late adulthood to age 60 and onwards? And are the different stages such as initiative v guilt set to only one stage and a certain, age 4–5, for everyone? (Participant six)

Discussion

Phase four: reflection

In social work practice, the use of self is a fundamental resource and tool, and social workers need to understand their own triggers, responses, and assumptions to enhance their communication skills and effective engagement with individuals, family, and communities (Cooper, 2017). As stated by Trevithick (2012) this necessitates a greater level of self-awareness, and it is arguable that, as social workers, we need to maintain a higher level of self-awareness than the everyday transactions of life demand, as we are always working with new people and dealing with the unexpected. Where there is a lack of self-awareness and reflection, there is a risk of social workers becoming emotionally dysregulated because of the demanding and complex relationships and engagements with others which can create feelings of anxiety or distress (Bogo, 2006). Student feedback and the analysis of submissions demonstrates that the life-history mapping exercise achieved an unintended outcome; that of supporting students to reflect on their personal development and significant life events. For some, this was the first time they had considered their complete life journey to date, and, whilst at times an emotional exercise, growth and understanding was achieved. Students reported how this process further enhanced their self-awareness, empathy, and ability to value diversity and person-centered approaches to practice.

The submitted reflections evidence how students found the formative task valuable for deepening their understanding and analysis of theories and models of development. By starting with lived experience as concrete examples, students reported how they were able to take abstract ideas and consider these in relation to a real-world context. The reflections indicate students were beginning to question relevance and limitations of theories, whilst also considering the application of said knowledge for understanding development, aligning with the learning outcomes of the module. Thus, the evidence suggests the intervention has supported students to move beyond recalling facts and describing material to engage in higher order thinking of application and analysis through comparing and contrasting theories to their lived experience (Teater, 2011).

The due date for the 400-word reflection was three days before Christmas break and followed two summative assignment due dates for other modules which were delivered concurrently. The timing and additional academic commitments may have been a barrier to learning and contributing to the lower-than-expected submission rate for the formative assessment (13 out of 21). Planning across a programme is important to identify pinch points in student learning while recognizing the limitations attributed to the academic year cycle and work integrated learning/placement requirements in social work education.

Additionally, the perceived value in the formative task from the position of the students may have contributed to the rates of submission. Across the undergraduate Social Work programme at the host institution in the UK, formative assessments were uncommon and not yet integrated into the wider programme culture; therefore, students may have perceived the task as a lower priority with limited value despite being informed how the exercise was an integral part of their learning for enhancing their judgment (Scales, 2017). It was also stressed that the formative task would support their practice and preparation for the final summative assignment; however, as formative assessments do not directly contribute to the final grade and students were facing multiple deadlines, strategic decisions may have been made by students to balance demands and prioritize their individual needs. The intervention has highlighted how setting expectations across the programme regarding formative and summative assessments, not just module-specific learning, is needed.

Of those who did not submit the final 400-words (n = 8), seven missed one or both 45-minute scheduled teaching sessions dedicated to life-history mapping. Of the 13 who submitted, only two missed one of these sessions and no one missed both. Recognising that learning is facilitated by interaction and participation (Nieuwoudt, 2020), despite the small cohort in this study, these findings indicate attendance may have influenced student engagement with the intervention and active reflection on learning (Bijsmans & Schakel, 2018). These findings align with the meta-analytical systematic literature review examining the relationship between-class attendance and educational success conducted by Crede et al. (2010).

Limitations

Although initial findings report a positive impact on the analysis and application of theory, enhanced personal reflection and practical skills in life-history mapping for practice, the findings of the action research are limited. Further research to evaluate the impact is needed. This may include an analysis of summative assignment grades, observations of student practice while on placements, and evidence of the integration of knowledge into participants’ final year of study to determine if application and analysis skills are sustained. Additionally, as this is the first cycle of applying the intervention into the module, the study is subject to cohort effects, and further cycles of the action research framework are recommended.

It should also be noted that indigenous ways of knowing and being were not embedded in the module or actively developed through this intervention. As the author had come from a bi-cultural practice background and was teaching into a western context within the United Kingdom, the action research has highlighted a need to review the curriculum through a decolonial lens, as the core theories and models of life-span development delivered in the module were from a European standpoint. Although students were encouraged to analyze theories with attention to difference in culture, gender, ethnicity, and broader social location (Thompson, 2020), the core theories remain from the global north and the intervention of life history mapping should be further developed to create a safe space for the sharing of oral-based knowledge.

Conclusion

As highlighted by Thompson (2022), teaching social work is a complex task whereby passing on core knowledge and building foundational skill is insufficient, as there is a need to equip students to be able to make use of that knowledge in different contexts and ensure graduates have an integrated analytical and reflective approach to practice. Life history mapping is not a new concept, yet this study has illustrated the potential for the tool to be extended beyond the realms of assessment in practice and into deeper learning processes to connect theory to practice through engaging students in application to their lived experience to support analysis. Despite limitations of sample size and potential impact of attendance, observations indicate students valued the exercise and reported an enhanced ability in applying theory. The reflective submissions further demonstrated an understanding of personalization to overcome limitations of theoretical perspectives to ensure anti-oppressive practice, and found students believed their development of practical communication and assessment skills were supported through constructing life-history maps, an outcome adjacent to the main objective of the intervention. Readers are encouraged to consider their own processes for supporting the connection of theory to practice in social work education, with findings indicating that life history mapping is a promising tool that would benefit from further application and evaluation.

Acknowledgments

Thank you to my teaching and learning mentor Dr Leanne Freeman who has encouraged and advised me on enhanced teaching practices and continued development as an educator. Ngā mihi nui ki a koe.

Disclosure statement

The author was a lecturer at the host institution at time of implementing the action research, however, is no longer employed at said institution. There are no further interests or potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

K. M. Pascoe

Dr Katheryn Margaret Pascoe is a lecturer in Social and Community Work at Otago University, having taught and practiced in Aotearoa New Zealand and the United Kingdom.