Digital media and relationships, sex, and health education in the classroom

ABSTRACT

Young people’s socio-sexual lives and development have become increasingly digitally mediated over recent years. There are implications for classroom-based Relationships, Sex, and Health Education (RSHE), which has recently been made mandatory in most state-maintained schools in England. The evidence base pertaining to good practice in RSHE is extensive and identifies a need for RSHE to be relatable and relevant to learners, and to position learners as active participants in the pedagogic process. Typically, young people’s use of digital media is considered a risk or problem to address in RSHE and this includes their use of digital media for formal and informal learning about sex and relationships. This paper explores the potential value of digital media to classroom based RSHE. It considers how using digital media in the classroom could help to convey material in a relatable and relevant way, including how the ‘influencer model’ may represent a new opportunity for or form of peer delivered education. It also discusses the value of strengthening young people’s skills in identifying reliable and trustworthy content and in applying the content to their own lives, which may necessitate opportunities for independent and self-directed learning away from the classroom.

KEYWORDS:

• young people
• Relationships
• Sex and Health Education
• Digital media
• Online influencers

Introduction

Young people’s use of digital media, including as pertains to their socio-sexual lives and development, has, typically, been considered a risk or problem area that requires addressing in Relationships, Sex, and Health Education (RSHE) (see, Döring, 2021; Scott et al., 2020). In this paper, I discuss evidence pertaining to the use of digital media as a pedagogical tool in the classroom. The evidence on good practice in RSHE suggests it must be responsive to and meet learners where they are and offer them the opportunity to actively participate in the learning process (Limmer, 2010; Pound et al., 2016). Given the significance of digital media to young people’s contemporary lives and experiences, incorporating it into pedagogy could have value. This paper considers the potential value in terms of, first, how it could recreate the typical ways in which young people connect and learn in digital media environments and, in turn, enable educators to develop and strengthen young people’s skills and competences within these environments for learning purposes. Second, and relatedly, it considers the scope for self-directed and independent learning enabled by digital media and that could be supported through classroom teaching. For the process to be most effective and impactful on learners, the evidence suggests it needs to address knowledge, skills, and norms and values in an integrated, inclusive, and critical approach. In this sense, using digital media will not be a panacea just because young people are oftentimes familiar with and positive about it. Pedagogy must still be well designed and delivered. The paper provides an important contribution to understanding the role of digital media in RSHE, which is particularly valuable at the current time in England in which RSHE has recently been made mandatory in most state-maintained schools (DfE, 2019).

Young people’s perspectives on RSHE

Young people’s perspectives on RSHE have been gleaned from evaluation studies of specific programmes and interventions (e.g. Buston & Wight, 2004; Forrest et al., 2004; Mellanby et al., 2001; Paiva, 2005; Smith et al., 2011; Wight, 2002), as well as studies that explore their general perspectives more broadly (e.g. Allen, 2005; Formby & Wolstenholme, 2012; Hirst, 2008; Kontula, 2010; O’Higgins & Gabhainn, 2010; Selwyn & Powell, 2007; Unis & Sällström, 2020). The evidence suggests that young people want and value RSHE, particularly when it is interactive and participatory and avoids overly factual, risk averse and top-down, one-way educational methods (Hirst, 2004; Smith et al., 2011; Unis & Sällström, 2020). Studies find that young people’s ‘expressed needs’ (Forrest et al., 2004) – or what they say they want from RSHE – relate to interest, relevance, and the ability to actively participate, ask questions, and be respected as learners (Allen, 2005; Macintyre et al., 2015; O’Higgins & Gabhainn, 2010). It is suggested that it is important that RSHE is responsive to the nuanced and complex perspectives that young people hold, as well as the confusion and/or insecurity that they may feel about the topics (Döring, 2021). The style of teaching is important, with young people expressing a desire for non-judgmental and unbiased approaches (Smith et al., 2011; Unis & Sällström, 2020). Studies have found that they want open and honest RSHE that does not unduly problematize, homogenize, or generalize about teenage life and their experiences; rather, they say they want to be treated as legitimate subjects and agents (e.g. Allen, 2005; Hirst, 2008; Limmer, 2010). Where education is risk-averse or negative in tone, rather than practical and skills-based, young people perceive it to lack relevance to their lives, which may be a particular issue for the ‘trickier’ RSHE topics that some traditional educators have been inclined to avoid or only engage with on a superficial level (Formby & Wolstenholme, 2012).

RSHE provision includes that delivered by teachers within schools and by external specialists and organizations. It has been identified that the quality of provision is affected by levels of willingness, openness, and ease, as well as attitudes toward taking a positive and inclusive approach to learners within the educational process among these educators (Blake, 2008). Kontula (2010) found that the effectiveness of RSHE in Finland can, in part, be attributed to teachers’ ease, openness, and frankness in teaching about the topics. Smith et al. (2011, p. 282) surveyed inner-city youth in the US about their experiences of an ‘abstinence-plus’ programme and found that teachers need to ‘convey accurate content’ but ‘in an appealing way’ that is perceived as ‘open, direct and nonjudgmental’. Pound et al. (2017, p. 6) suggest:

‘ … that good sex educators enjoy teaching [RSHE], have experiential knowledge and are comfortable with their own sexuality. They are professional, confident, unembarrassed, straightforward, experienced at talking about sex and use everyday language. They have expertise in sexual health, are specifically trained in [RSHE], are trustworthy, approachable, non-judgmental and able to maintain confidentiality. They respect young people and their autonomy, treat young people as equals and accept that they may be sexually active.’

Teachers in schools may vary in their ability and willingness to deliver RSHE that aligns with these principles for good practice. External specialists and organizations may be more at ease with open and candid discussion and can build rapport with young people while maintaining a sense of being apart from the institutional structures and processes within the school. Young people say they want to hear from outside experts and non-teachers (O’Higgins & Gabhainn, 2010; Pound et al., 2017). Good quality RSHE can, however, occur in a variety of settings and with different types of young people and the style of the teacher and the relationships between the educator and learner (and among learners) are important (Buston & Wight, 2004). Studies have found that young people want to feel at ease and safe in RSHE lessons and that confidentiality is important to them (O’Higgins & Gabhainn, 2010; Pound et al., 2017; Selwyn & Powell, 2007). Teachers themselves are aware that they need to be seen as credible and experienced to be taken seriously by learners (Formby & Wolstenholme, 2012) and that active participation in the classroom can help convey and engage learners with the material (Buston & Wight, 2004). It has been argued that RSHE teachers must be both open and comfortable and capable of controlling the class and managing discussions safely (Allen, 2005; Buston & Wight, 2004; Strange et al., 2003; Unis & Sällström, 2020). This can help to create a space where learners feel able and willing to contribute and discuss the topics.

Careful consideration needs to be given, in particular, to ensuring that RSHE is responsive to and engaging for boys. Boys have been found to sometimes disengage from RSHE when they feel it is not addressing the issues that matter to them, particularly those who are already disengaged from school (Allen, 2005; Hilton, 2001; Limmer, 2010; Measor, 2004). Allen (2005, p. 395) suggests that boys’ expressed desire for real and hands-on teaching and learning is an expression of a ‘masculine identity as sexual actors with sexual desires that need quenching’ as well as their need for education that connects to their lives. Strange et al. (2003) outline how these issues can play out in the classroom. Boys can behave disruptively and can sexualize and harass girls, who, in turn, can feel inhibited from participating. Both boys and girls in the study said they would value the opportunity to hear about one another’s perspectives but, in reality, felt that this does not always occur effectively. Strange et al. (2003) suggest that boys’ disruptive behaviour can mask fear and anxiety about participating and speaking openly, and young people felt that it happens because the content does not engage with what is important to them.

Scholars also identify the importance of ensuring that RSHE provision is inclusive for LGBT and BAME youth (Formby, 2011; Hirst, 2004). Formby and Donovan (2020) argue that the marginalization and stigma of LGBT perspectives is reflected in the data on poor sexual and mental health and intimate and relational wellbeing outcomes. Hirst (2004) recommends engaging with how young people can challenge normative assumptions about sex and relationships and posits that talking about pleasure can help widen the discourse around what constitutes identity, health, and wellbeing and can give recognition to marginalized identities. She suggests this requires positioning young people as legitimate experts, reflecting on the nature of and hoped-for impacts of RSHE, and, as part of this, reflexivity on the part of educators.

The impact of RSHE

Evaluations of RSHE have typically considered impacts on knowledge, attitudes, and behaviour pertaining to the topics. Findings suggest that the interconnections between these aspects are complex and sometimes difficult to establish. Wight (2002) argue that young people do not always act on the basis of knowledge and that RSHE is competing with other influences, such as family, culture, and the media and may be difficult to recall and apply within day-to-day contexts. Knowledge gained through RSHE may, however, shape behaviour over time (Kippax & Stephenson, 2005). Unis and Sällström (2020) suggest that while the relevance of RSHE may not be immediately apparent to young people, it can provide them with opportunities for reflection, exploration, and perspective taking and can help them get comfortable with talking about the topics.

It has been argued that RSHE should be conceptualized in terms of how young people learn and develop in a social and cultural context (Wight, 2011); norms and attitudes (Walcott et al., 2011); sites of power and contestation (Ingham, 2005); and the ‘cultural and symbolic realm’ of young people’s lives (Paiva, 2005, p. 356). Rogow and Haberland (2005) describe a social science approach to RSHE as aiming to develop analytical and critical thinking skills. This type of RSHE is, perhaps, political and can help engender critical reflexivity among both educators and learners, including about the value systems and inequities that shape young people’s socio-sexual lives and development within a wider social, cultural, and structural context (Hirst, 2004; Rogow & Haberland, 2005). It can, for example, help young people to explore and learn about culture, media, peer pressure, the role of gender and sexuality, issues of discrimination and diversity, and the emotional and relational aspects of socio-sexual life (Macintyre et al., 2015). It can, however, be challenging to address the wider issues that often transcend the classroom setting (Willis et al., 2013).

The impact metrics and methodologies that are used to evaluate the quality of RSHE are, therefore, important. Kippax and Stephenson (2005) suggest that rather than focusing on individual change within a short period, evaluations should examine longer-term social and cultural change through knowledge and attitude development. They advocate examining how learners engage with RSHE and how it relates to the ‘thick’ conditions of their lives. Understanding these mechanisms of engagement and learning requires person-centred methodologies. Impact thus includes the process of learning and attitude and belief formation and change whereby ‘ … “awareness” should be understood as more than a psychological outcome intended to change individual attitudes, behaviours and knowledge; instead, it aims to promote citizenship’ and involves a process of subjectification, agency, and participation (Paiva, 2005, p. 348; also see, Morris, 2005).

Peer-delivered RSHE

It has been suggested that peers may be effective at generating the kind of open and informal RSHE that young people say they want and may be more influential over social norms than teachers (Dobson et al., 2017). The evidence on the effectiveness of peer delivered RSHE is, however, mixed. It is important they are perceived by learners as credible and knowledgeable (Selwyn & Powell, 2007). Forrest et al.’s (2004) evaluation of the Ripple Programme of peer-delivered RSHE in English secondary schools found that sessions were most effective when participatory and skills-based, but that peer educators were less effective at engaging learners who were most at risk. Dobson et al. (2017) discuss how peer education tended to involve more open and bi-directional communication and was more youth centred in terms of language and style compared to teacher-delivered education, but there were issues with discipline and class control. They caution that it is unclear what underlies effective peer education, and the approach can be variable, with authoritarian structures and problematic attitudes potentially reproduced in such education. Mellanby et al. (2001), furthermore, found that peer-delivered education may help to convey norms but is seemingly less effective at imparting factual information. They suggest that peer-delivered education may be most effective when part of an integrated approach involving teachers and other adults as well. There can, moreover, be issues of sustainability with peer delivered RSHE further suggesting that it should be considered part of broader RSHE provision rather than sufficient in and of itself (Wight, 2011).

In a digital landscape, ‘peers’ go beyond the same or similarly aged individuals that comprise young people’s immediate social contexts. Instead, they now include broader networks of actors and individuals who may not be known directly in day-to-day offline life (boyd, 2012). As such, understanding the nature of peer delivered RSHE involves recognising the different forms it can take in digital spaces and, for example, the role of ‘influencers’ and others in imparting education about sex and relationships topics (Johnston, 2017). More generally, influencers comprise individuals online who share content on digital media platforms and develop followings based on lifestyle, politics, commerce, among others (e.g. Zimmermann et al., 2020). This paper now discusses what is known about the use of digital media in RSHE and how the ‘influencer trend’ could be harnessed as part of digital RSHE pedagogy.

Digital media and RSHE

In general, technology-based approaches and the use of digital media in educational interventions are associated with helping to develop research, collaborative, critical, creativity, and communication skills (Lawlor et al., 2018; Potter & McDougall, 2017). Many studies suggest that the use of practical activities with digital media, whereby students engage in planning, collaboration, and production, is an effective learning strategy (Buckingham, 2003; Burn & Durran, 2007; Burnett & Merchant, 2018). There is an increasing tendency to use technology in RSHE, such as videos, computer activities, text messaging, and games (Garzón-Orjuela et al., 2021). Young people have been found to value the use of technology, for example, in online safety interventions, because it fits their media culture and provides fun (Hartikainen et al., 2019).

It is well-established that young people globally are frequent and heavy users of the internet for information, communication, and entertainment, and new digital media is ‘user controlled and shareable’ (Guse et al., 2012, p. 542). Young people’s socio-sexual lives and development have been impacted upon by developments in digital technology and are, likewise, digitally mediated (see, Lee et al., 2018). Young people have been found to consult a range of sources of information and advice about sex and relationships, including more informal sources such as the internet, alongside parents and teachers (Bleakley et al., 2008; Borzekowski & Rickert, 2001; Döring, 2021; McKee et al., 2018; Selwyn & Powell, 2007). Traditional media, and now the internet, may be influential over knowledge, attitudes, and behaviours although the evidence base on this is not entirely clear (Guse et al., 2012; L’Engle et al., 2006; Ngo et al., 2008; Simon & Daneback, 2013). Online RSHE has been described by scholars as, at least potentially, interactive and responsive, and young people like it for its accessibility, broadened content, anonymity, and discretion (Doornwaard et al., 2017; Döring, 2021; Dyson et al., 2003; Guse et al., 2012; Hirst, 2013; Kanuga & Rosenfeld, 2004; Mitchell et al., 2014; Simon & Daneback, 2013). Potential benefits include its reach, access, and anonymity, alongside controlled and systematic content which can be tailored to the individual (Barak & Fisher, 2001).

Young people seem to particularly value social media and user-generated content for providing opportunities to discuss and explore personal experiences and issues (Macintyre et al., 2015; McKee et al., 2018; Sanne et al., 2020). Manduley et al. (2018) describe online RSHE as a digital extension of the by-and-for RSHE that predates the emergence of contemporary digital media and social media, and which now includes user-generated content. They suggest that digital media is more responsive to the needs and demands of users compared to mainstream media, can challenge dominant narratives, and facilitates personal expression, solidarity, and community building. They caution, however, that the visibility of youth in these spaces can create risk and platforms can exercise extensive control over and censorship of content.

While various types of young people report using digital media for RSHE, there is evidence that older and more educated youth may use it to a greater extent (Bleakley et al., 2008; Cotton & Gupta, 2004). The evidence on gender differences is mixed (Bleakley et al., 2008; Borzekowski & Rickert, 2001). Sanne et al.’s (2020) more recent study found that boys and girls may differ in the type of content they seek out, with boys seeking more informational and interactive content and girls more professional content. They also found that those with higher levels of sexual experience and curiosity, lower sexual self-esteem, and greater experience of sexual problems were more likely to seek out education online. LGBT youth seem particularly likely to seek out information and education online (Charest et al., 2016; Mitchell et al., 2014; Sanne et al., 2020). Online provision may be valuable to LGBT young people if and when they feel that mainstream RSHE is not fully addressing their perspectives (McKee et al., 2018; Oosterhoff et al., 2017) or is pathologizing or oppressive in nature (Manduley et al., 2018). Anonymity seems particularly important for minoritized and marginalized youth due to fears of stigma and the heteronormative focus of some mainstream RSHE (Craig & McInroy, 2014; Mitchell et al., 2014).

Döring (2021) identifies that the nature of RSHE online varies, and providers include professional sexual health organizations, individual professional educators, and laypersons serving as peer educators. She found that many individual educators are providing ‘sex positive’ and comprehensive education ‘in an approachable, entertaining and personal manner which includes their own experiences’ (Döring, 2021, p. 4). While sex positivity is a contested term, it can be understood as not about an obligation or expectation to be sexually active or to participate in any and all forms of sexual activity, but about non-judgmental communication about sex free from shame or embarrassment (School of Sexuality Education, 2019). Laypersons online, meanwhile, were using different forums and discussion spaces online, and ‘focus mainly on sharing their own sexual experiences, skills, attitudes and complement these with scientific knowledge on sexuality insofar as they are able to do so in respect of background research’ (Döring, 2021, p. 5). Döring (2021) describes these individuals as trying to inform, inspire, and act as role models. She found that there is diversity among online educators, and they often talk about inclusivity, stigma, and self-acceptance and advocate for their own and others’ rights. In an analysis of two YouTube channels that provide RSHE to a large number of followers, Johnston (2017) identifies that these ‘influencers’ have the scope to convey relatability and a personal touch. She found that the content needs to be enticing and trustworthy and can engender interactivity and community building among and by followers. At the same time, however, it is important to critically evaluate the extent to which different ‘influencers’ and their content genuinely is ‘trustworthy’ and reliable (beyond being perceived as such) and to equip young people with the skills they need to make these judgments.

There may be value, therefore, in incorporating digital media into RSHE because it may feel familiar and relevant to learners. It may, furthermore, help in developing and strengthening learners’ skills in using these sources, for example, regarding how to assess the quality of the material they encounter and consume and how to interpret and apply it to themselves and their lives. This latter point is important, first, because online content varies in its form and quality and, second, because some young people, including those experiencing sexual problems or with low sexual self-esteem, may be more likely to consult this type of content and so require support and guidance to do so safely (Sannes et al., 2020). Döring (2021, p. 3) found that the content can include traditional and conservative voices and internet sources can contribute to the spread of ‘sexual misinformation and disinformation’ and it can be difficult to assess the accuracy of the content (also see, Doornwaard et al., 2017; Kanuga & Rosenfeld, 2004). While some young people are aware of variation in the quality of online content and may, sometimes, be able to assess its accuracy, credibility, and reliability, there is evidence that some may find it easier to do this than others (Doornwaard et al., 2017; Döring, 2021; Simon & Daneback, 2013).

The diversity of online spaces, in terms of the nature and style of the education, the level and type of interactivity, and the modalities of digital media used, may not, furthermore, be an inherently negative aspect because young people themselves are diverse in their knowledge, experiences, and preferences (Guse et al., 2012). It can also offer young people opportunities to encounter different opinions and experiences (Attwood et al., 2015; Kanuga & Rosenfeld, 2004). The diversity of online content includes pornography (Kanuga & Rosenfeld, 2004), which tends to raise concerns particularly among traditional educators. Oosterhoff et al. (2017) discuss how the boundaries between pornographic and educational content blur and young people can encounter pornography when searching for information, while censorship by platforms and internet service providers can impact educational as well as pornographic content.

As such, while young people’s digital media use may, typically, be considered as having risky or otherwise problematic implications for sex and relationships (Döring, 2021; Scott et al., 2020), there may, instead, be value in harnessing the potentials of digital media as a tool for learning and for bringing to life the issues that young people face (Albury, 2013). Barak and Fisher (2001) argue that it should involve interactivity and participation, utilize different types of media content and platforms, and enable learners to re-access and revisit the learning. They caution, however, that the ‘digital divide’ among youth needs addressing and that digital media should complement, rather than replace, other forms of RSHE. Digital media can then become part of school-based interventions and education (Guse et al., 2012) and evidence suggests that young people’s use of digital media for education does not necessarily usurp other forms of education and may meet different needs and so can be part of an integrated approach (Sanne et al., 2020).

Practically, incorporating digital media into RSHE could be a way of replicating and embedding an influencer model of peer delivered education. The preceding discussion of good practice in RSHE and the nature of peer delivered education suggests that RSHE needs to be relatable and relevant to be most engaging for learners and needs to address knowledge, skills, and norms safely and inclusively in the classroom. Peers may have a role to play in this education but issues with quality, impact, and sustainability have been identified. Incorporating online influencers into RSHE could be a way of achieving a sense of relatability and a personal touch (see, Johnston, 2017) while the classroom teacher or facilitator is able to manage the class and provide learners with the structures and support required for them to explore, interpret, and apply the content. Such an approach could be part of skills- and competency-based learning for the digital era.

An example of the use of digital media to facilitate RSHE was reported on by McKee et al. (2018). They examined the use of vulgar comedy videos disseminated via an app for use by youth workers who work with young men. The videos were intended to aid teaching about sexual health and included male comedians telling jokes about condoms, masturbation, giving their partner sexual pleasure, among other topics. McKee et al. (2018) found that young people liked the videos and found them informative, helpful, and funny. They described them as more detailed, accessible, frank, and honest than parent or teacher delivered RSHE. It was important to them that the content was funny, relatable, and authentic and they valued the shareability dimension on social media. This study suggests that digital media can potentially be harnessed by professionals to support their RSHE delivery. As discussed further below, however, young people may also need opportunities for self-directed and independent learning, first, because they need opportunities to apply and develop their skills and, second, because young people report wanting private and anonymous spaces for learning in their own time.

Another example is a pedagogically driven game developed to support classroom based RSHE (specifically, skills in dealing with sexual coercion) evaluated by Arnab et al. (2013). They found that study participants liked discussing the content in class and valued the opportunity to hear about what others think. Some did not contribute to the whole group discussion, however, and the game set-up allowed for smaller group interaction, with evidence that some young people felt more able to contribute and felt more listened to in the smaller groups. Some teachers paused the game to facilitate discussion at various points. Arnab et al. (2013, p. 16) recommend a ‘blended’ approach, involving the game and discussion. In this sense, there are broader implications in terms of the value of using digital media to complement RSHE rather than replace it. Furthermore, Arnab et al. (2013) also found that some outcomes, for example, knowledge about saying no and positive attitudes toward saying no, actually diminished for the game group compared to the control group. They posit that the increased awareness of the complexity of the topic may have diminished perceptions of certainty among the game group, which may be a necessary part of the learning process. Discussion and critical deconstruction of the topics is, therefore, a potentially important part of pedagogy.

Developing the use of digital media in RSHE

Delivering RSHE can be challenging for schools. Teachers need to be equipped to deliver RSHE safely, inclusively, and effectively for all learners (Blake, 2008). Some learners may have had traumatic experiences connected to the topic, especially young women and LGBT youth (Forrest et al., 2004). Others, meanwhile, may be uninterested in or disengaged from RSHE (Smith et al., 2011) and there can be missed opportunities for participation and development of understanding among these young people (Unis & Sällström, 2020). Wight (2011, p. 71), furthermore, identifies that a positive impact of RSHE on learners is most likely when it ‘[coincides] with critical points in a young person’s own sexual experiences’, which will differ between youth and may not be reflected in the curriculum design and delivery process (also see, Unis & Sällström, 2020). As such, developing young people’s skills and competencies for self-directed and independent learning that they can undertake at times that align with their socio-sexual developmental processes and experiences is important. Digital media may be an important part of this educational landscape.

Incorporating digital media into RSHE may help to improve the quality and impact of the provision, but careful thought needs to be given for the rationale and nature of the approach. Incorporating digital influencers and other online educational resources may help with relatability and relevance. Young people’s skills at identifying accurate, reliable, and trustworthy content and interpreting and applying the content to their own lives can be supported with opportunities to explore and discuss the content in the classroom. It could offer an opportunity to incorporate a contemporary form of peer education into the classroom in a safe and sustainable way. It is important, however, to understand how teachers use this kind of content and the skills and approach needed to do so most effectively (see, Allen, 2005; Buston & Wight, 2004; Pound et al., 2017). As part of this, it may be valuable to take a holistic approach to evaluating how young people engage with RSHE resources, content, and teaching methods beyond just short-term impacts, as discussed above. Metrics such as perceived relatability and relevance of the content, as well as the perceived value and effectiveness of classroom discussions and activities, are important. Furthermore, as Arnab et al. (2013) found, the opportunity to consider the complexities of different topics may have a more immediate effect of creating uncertainty with negative implications for expressed knowledge and understanding. There is thus a need to capture the processes of learning and development over time.

Given that young people are consulting and interacting with online sources of education beyond the control and purview of teachers and other adults, it is perhaps also important, as discussed above, to ensure that the education supports and strengthens young people’s abilities to assess and apply online content independently. Scholars have argued that learning may require opportunities to engage with the resources on their own terms and in private settings (Allen, 2005) or, perhaps, pedagogical methods that involve linking the content to their own lives and sociocultural contexts, which may need to be done privately (Paiva, 2005). Evidence suggests, furthermore, that young people can be concerned about confidentiality and vary in how comfortable they feel sharing their own perspectives in the classroom, with many wanting self-directed and independent learning opportunities (O’Higgins & Gabhainn, 2010; Pound et al., 2017; Selwyn & Powell, 2007).

Barak and Fisher (2001) argue that a strength of the internet is how it can facilitate interactivity and participation, in which learners can re-access and revisit the learning. They describe it as offering control, flexibility, and privacy and, therefore, as complementing formally delivered RSHE. Young people express a desire to have control over accessing and sharing RSHE media content (McKee et al., 2018). As such, it is perhaps unlikely to be possible for educators in formal RSHE in the classroom to fully mediate or gatekeep young people’s access to online education. Instead, these educators may want to aim to support a strengths- and competency-based approach and acknowledge the role for independent and self-directed learning. Borghuis et al. (2010) discuss an example of independently accessed RSHE, which involved a digital storytelling method intended for 15 to 25 year-old Turkish and Moroccan young people living in the Netherlands. It was youth-led, and a group of students interviewed Muslim young people about their perspectives and experiences of sex and relationships. The students acted as ‘cultural mediators’ (Borghuis et al., 2010, p. 235) who were ‘able to transform potentially sensitive information and issues into acceptable language and narratives’ (p. 238). The interview data was adapted into eight life stories about difficulties, dilemmas, and choices connected to sex and relationships, featuring Turkish and Moroccan characters. The stories were intended to:

‘ … make it possible for young Dutch Muslims to find ways to talk about and experience sex in terms of respect and dignity, in ways that are respectful and sensitive to how young people themselves experience their cultural and religious heritage in a multicultural society’ (Borghuis et al., 2010, p. 236).

There was a website for young people to access the stories and to discuss and develop their understanding and personal perspectives with other website visitors. The stories were open-ended to facilitate reflection and discussion and dealt with norms, values, and taboos. The project aimed to engage with the needs and perspectives of the target audience and achieve ‘authenticity and credibility’ and, on the whole, was well-received by young people (Borghuis et al., 2010, p. 242). Despite the positive potentialities of self-directed learning and independent use of digital media, McKee et al. (2018) describe how some adult stakeholders (involved in sexual health education and promotion) can sometimes be concerned about how young people may interpret the content (in their case, the comedy videos described above) if able to access it privately and independently. The implications of gatekeeper control over young people’s use of digital media for RSHE can vary across country contexts and can be further impacted by internet service providers, for example, due to censorship (Oosterhoff et al., 2017). It is important, therefore, to understand how young people can be empowered to access and engage with online content privately and independently, but also safely and with the required critical thinking skills. As part of this, it is necessary to explore how educators feel about digital learning for RSHE and how to align classroom-based and teacher-directed education with self-directed and independent learning.

Conclusion

With young people’s socio-sexual lives and development being increasingly digitally mediated, the potential value of incorporating digital media into pedagogy for RSHE are numerous. First, it may help to ensure that the teaching and learning is relatable and relevant for young people, with positive impacts on their engagement with classroom based RSHE. Second, it may be a way of incorporating valuable aspects of peer delivered RSHE (e.g. through the ‘influencer model’) while ensuring that the teacher or facilitator can provide the structures and support necessary to ensure that the teaching and learning is safe, inclusive, and helps young people to develop their skills and competences. Third, it may help young people to develop skills and competences specifically as pertain to their access to and interpretation of formal and informal sources of online education about sex and relationships. While there may be some disquiet about young people’s use of the internet for these purposes, there may be some value for them in terms of being able to undertake independent and self-directed learning aligned with their needs and wants at different stages of their socio-sexual development.

Harnessing the potentialities and embedding digital media within an integrated approach to RSHE that focuses on knowledge, skills, norms, and values may be helpful for both educators and learners within the contemporary digital era. It may require critical reflexivity from both educators and learners about the impacts of digital media on sex and relationships and the different sources of information, education, and guidance that can be found online. An active and participatory role for young people as learners is likely to be important to navigating these new and ever-changing terrains, as has long been identified as being the case for RSHE as a subject. There are examples of existing pedagogy utilizing digital media that indicate the importance of relatable and relevant content, and opportunity for critical discussion about the content. It is thus likely to be important that digital media complements rather than usurps or replaces RSHE. Further development and evaluation of pedagogical models that include elements of digital media will help in identifying the aspects that are associated with positive impact – short and long term – on learners.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).