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Abstract
Zinc (Zn) exposure in pre-school children via household drinking water collected by a double sampling method (morning, evening) was evaluated in a sample of the Polish population. Zn concentration was measured by flame atomic absorption spectrometry. Rural and suburban Krakow sites were non-distinguishable in respect of Zn concentrations. However, significantly lower Zn was found in urban as compared with non-urban sites [geometric mean (95% confidence interval) 0.14 (0.01–1.95) mg l−1 versus 0.52 (0.03–10.2) mg l−1, p < 0.001.] Zn levels in water standing overnight in pipelines were higher in all sites by 0.36 mg l−1 on average, but observed really contaminations were higher. The Zn limit based on the taste and colour of drinking water (3 mg l−1) was exceeded in 1% and 10% of households from urban and non-urban sites, respectively. The Zn intake predictions for evening water samples for 6-year-old children averaged between 2% and 9% of the recommended dietary allowance (RDA, 10 mg day−1) for urban and non-urban sites, respectively. Mean Zn intake prediction for the exceedance fraction was 64% of RDA. In conclusion, overnight contamination of drinking water from in-house pipelines was significant and common to all sites investigated. Secondly, drinking water can be considered a significant contributor to dietary Zn intake by children in non-urban sites and may shift the population borderline of deficiency.
Acknowledgements
The author wishes to acknowledge Maria Folta for laboratory and analytical assistance; the students of the university for partial assistance in sample collection and preparation; and Professor Dr Hab. Zofia Zachwieja for interest in this study and for comments.