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ABSTRACT
This article offers a critical view of the water and sanitation sector within the broader trajectory of Jakarta’s spatial development and planning. Its territorial focus is on kampungs and it traces their historical journey from the periphery of the colonial city – Batavia and its modern planning domain – to the centre of the post-independence planning regime. ‘Kampung’ is an indigenous term for rural-agricultural settlements. In the colonial period, it was used to label non-European and non-Chinese settlements in and around the city. Colonial modernity created certain stigmatizations: kampungs came to be seen as undisciplined and insanitary communities, sources of insurgency and threats to public health. But the kampung realm was also (re)produced through practices of segregation within the colonial planning system. The imaginaries of colonial modernity linger on within today’s planning practices, resulting in a persistent failure to improve the environmental health of kampungs and the city as a whole. Postcolonial kampungs remain as a cosmopolitan enclave open to different cultures and socio-political contestations. The article argues that, given the kampung’s resilience in varying socio-ecological conditions, urban kampungs should be seen not as a problem, but as an opportunity for new planning approaches.
Acknowledgements
This article is based on my doctoral research at KU Leuven (2009–2014), for which I received the generous support from the Vlaamse Interuniversitaire Raad/University Development Cooperation (VLIR-UOS), as well as Dr Teti Argo and Dr Ibnu Syabri who hosted the fieldwork in 2011–2012 at the Regions and Infrastructure Research Center, Institut Teknologi Bandung. A more recent fieldwork in Jakarta has been conducted in 2017, for the current postdoc at the University of Copenhagen that also allows me to further elaborate the topic and arguments in this article. I thank Frank Moulaert, Han Verschure, Adriana Allen, Kelly Shannon, Simone Tulumello, Penelope Anthias and Christian Lund, as well as the referees and editors of Planning Perspectives for their valuable suggestions. The content of the article and any remaining shortcomings are, of course, my responsibility.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
Notes on contributor
Prathiwi Widyatmi Putri was formally trained as an engineer architect and spatial planner. She has worked for development initiatives in Aceh, Java, and West Papua in Indonesia, as well as in Central Viet Nam, with varying multinational organizations.
Notes
1 Yachiko Engineering, The Project for Capacity Development.
2 Huxley, “Historicizing Planning.”
3 Watson, “Seeing from the South.”
4 Friedmann, Planning in the Public Domain.
5 Hillier and Van Looij, “Who Speaks for the Poor?”
6 Huxley, “Historicizing Planning”; Elling, “Communicative Planning”; and Lo Piccolo, “Viewpoint. The Planning Research Agenda.”
7 Bigon, “Sanitation and Street Layout”; Home, Of Planting and Planning; Melosi, The Sanitary City; and Mitchell, Colonising Egypt.
8 McFarlane, “Governing the Contaminated City”; Gandy, “Planning, Anti-planning and the Infrastructure Crisis”; and Abeyasekere and Owen, “Death and Disease.”
9 Jewitt, “Geographies of Shit”; and Bigon, “Bubonic Plague, Colonial Ideologies, and Urban Planning Policies.”
10 Porter, The History of Public Health and the Modern State.
11 Gandy, “The Paris Sewers and the Rationalization of Urban Space”; Kaika and Swyngedouw, “Fetishizing the Modern City”; and Jewitt, “Geographies of Shit.”
12 See Bigon, “Sanitation and Street Layout”; and Kooy and Bakker, “Splintered Networks.”
13 See also Bigon, “Bubonic Plague, Colonial Ideologies, and Urban Planning Policies.”
14 Schramm, “Flooding the Sanitary City”; and Kop, “Water in the City.”
15 See Jumsai, “Urban Aquatics.”
16 See Roy, “Urban Informality”; and Robinson, “Thinking Cities Through Elsewhere.”
17 See for example Silver, Planning the Megacity; Abeyasekere, Jakarta: A History; and Grijns and Nas, Jakarta-Batavia.
18 Blussé, “Batavia, 1619–1740”; and Ray, “Asian Capital.”
19 Alexander and Alexander, “Protecting Peasants from Capitalism”; Christie, “States without Cities”; and Ray, “Asian Capital.”
20 Putri and Rahmanti, “Jakarta Waterscape.”
21 Gunawan, Gagalnya Sistem Kanal [The Failure of Canal System].
22 Blussé, “Batavia, 1619–1740.”
23 See Guinness, Kampung, Islam and State in Urban Java.
24 Elson, “Sugar Factory Workers”; Booth, “Living Standards and the Distribution of Income”; Ray, “Asian Capital”; and Alexander and Alexander, “Protecting Peasants from Capitalism.”
25 See Booth, “Living Standards and the Distribution of Income”; and Elson, “Sugar Factory Workers.”
26 See Christie, “States Without Cities”; Waterson, The Living House; and Reid, “The Structure of Cities in Southeast Asia.”
27 See Veering, “Nodes in the Maritime Network.”
28 Hooimeijer, “Exploring the Relationship Between Water Management Technology and Urban Design.”
29 Caljouw and Nas, “Flooding in Jakarta.”
30 Kop, “Water in the City.”
31 Van der Brug, “Unhealthy Batavia.”
32 Ibid.; Abeyasekere and Owen, “Death and Disease.”
33 Elson, “Sugar Factory Workers.”
34 Abeyasekere, Jakarta: A History.
35 See Booth, “Living Standards and the Distribution of Income”; and Elson, “Sugar Factory Workers.”
36 De Jong and Ravesteijn, “Technology and Administration.”
37 Kop, “Water in the City”; and Van Roosmalen, “For Kota and Kampong.”
38 De Jong and Ravesteijn, “Technology and Administration.”
39 Ibid.; Ertsen and Ravesteijn, “Living Water.”
40 Van Roosmalen, “Expanding Grounds”; Niessen, Municipal Government in Indonesia; and Van Roosmalen, “For Kota and Kampong.”
41 Kooy, “Relations of Power, Networks of Water.”
42 Ibid.
43 A health report cited in Kop, “Water in the City.”
44 Abeyasekere, Jakarta: A History.
45 See Kop, “Water in the City.”
46 Quinn, “Washing Your Hair in Java”; and Van Dijk, “Soap is the Onset of Civilization.”
47 See Kooy, “Relations of Power, Networks of Water.”
48 Ibid.; Kop, “Water in the City.”
49 Silver, Planning the Megacity, 84.
50 See Lansing, “Balinese ‘Water Temples’ and the Management of Irrigation”; Lansing and de Vet, “The Functional Role of Balinese Water Temples”; and Widodo, Morphogenesis and Hybridity of Southeast Asian Coastal Cities.
51 Van Roosmalen, “Expanding Grounds”; and Van Roosmalen, “For Kota and Kampong.”
52 Niessen, Municipal Government in Indonesia.
53 Kusno, Behind the Postcolonial.
54 Kusno, “Urban Pedagogy.”
55 Kunto, Semerbak Bunga di Bandung Raya; and Kusno, “Urban Pedagogy.”
56 See Kooy and Bakker, “Splintered Networks.”
57 See Van Roosmalen, “Expanding Grounds”; and Harjoko, Urban Kampung.
58 See Reid, “The Structure of Cities in Southeast Asia.”
59 Kusno, “Urban Pedagogy”; and Van Roosmalen, “For Kota and Kampong.”
60 Gunawan, Gagalnya Sistem Kanal; and Harjoko, Urban Kampung.
61 Van der Heiden, “Town Planning in the Dutch Indies.”
62 Abeyasekere, Jakarta: A History.
63 Kusno, “Urban Pedagogy.”
64 See Reerink, Tenure Security for Indonesia’s Urban Poor.
65 Niessen, Municipal Government in Indonesia.
66 See Harjoko, Urban Kampung; and Van Roosmalen, “Expanding Grounds.”
67 Abeyasekere, Jakarta: A History.
68 Kop, “Water in the City.”
69 See Taylor, “Bathing and Hygiene.”
70 Kusno, Behind the Postcolonial.
71 See Harjoko, Urban Kampung; and Van Roosmalen, “Expanding Grounds.”
72 Van Roosmalen, “For Kota and Kampong.”
73 Silver, Planning the Megacity, 126.
74 Harjoko, Urban Kampung; and Gunawan, Gagalnya Sistem Kanal.
75 This topic has been sufficiently written by Firman, “Urban Development in Indonesia”; Goldblum and Wong, “Growth, Crisis and Spatial Change”; Rimmer and Dick, The City in Southeast Asia; and Silver, Planning the Megacity.
76 Firman, “Urban development in Indonesia”; and Goldblum and Wong, “Growth, Crisis and Spatial Change.”
77 See Silver, Planning the Megacity, 126–53.
78 See Bianpoen, “Jakarta’s Poor.”
79 Werlin, “The Slum Upgrading Myth”; and Verschure, “Housing and Development.”
80 Harjoko, Urban Kampung.
81 Abeyasekere, Jakarta: A History.
82 See also van der Hoff and Steinberg, The Integrated Urban Infrastructure Development Programme.
83 Mattingly and Winarso, Urban Spatial Planning and Public Capital Investment.
84 See Hoff and Steinberg, The Integrated Urban Infrastructure Development Programme.
85 Miller, Support to DKI Jakarta.
86 Yachiko Engineering, The Project for Capacity Development. Updated in the author’s interview 2017.
87 JICA, The Study of Urban Drainage and Wastewater Disposal Project.
88 PDPAL Jaya, Rencana Strategi Sanitasi Kota Provinsi DKI Jakarta Tahun 2010–2015.
89 Leaf, “Building the Road for the BMW.”
90 Kusno, “Guardian of Memories.”
91 Ibid.; Kusno, “The Appearances of Memory.”
92 See for example Hogan and Houston, “Corporate Cities”; and Bunnell and Ann Miller, “Jakarta in Post-Suharto Indonesia.”
93 See Kooy, Walter, and Prabaharyaka, “Inclusive Development of Urban Water Services in Jakarta.”
94 See Mulyana, Decent Work in Jakarta.
95 URDI and Mercy Corps, Urban Bulletin No.2.
96 Yachiko Engineering, The Project for Capacity Development.
97 Author’s interview with several government officials: staff of Technical Division PD PAL Jaya, 2011; former financial director of PD PAL Jaya, 2011; Head of Division of Wastewater Ministry of Public Works, 2011; former director of Directorate of Environmental Sanitation Development, Ministry of Public Works, 2012
98 Author’s interview, 2017.
99 Author’s interview with an employee of the environmental agency 2010; and with a second-echelon official at the spatial planning agency 2012.
100 See also Hudalah and Firman, “Beyond Property.”
101 Author’s discussion with the planner 2015.
102 Discussion at a public meeting attended by the author in a university in Jakarta, 2015
103 Januardy and Demadevina, Atas Nama Pembangunan [In the Name of Development].
104 See also Ng, “Intellectuals and the Production of Space.”
105 Author’s field survey 2017.
106 Author’s estimation based on Miller, Support to DKI Jakarta.
107 See Silver, Planning the Megacity, 130–8.
108 Chatterjee, The Politics of the Governed, 36, 136.
109 Hardoy et al., “Governance for Water and Sanitation Services”; and Mara and Alabaster, “A New Paradigm.”
110 Allen, Dávila, and Hofmann, “The Peri-Urban Water Poor.”