Old and New Vallila. The early years of affordable housing production in Helsinki

ABSTRACT

Vallila is a showcase of Finnish social housing at the beginning of the twentieth century. Old wooden Vallila was built 1908–1915. It consisted of 22 small building lots, all meant to be built as one family houses by standardized drawings. As times were poor, the population grew out of control. In 1908, Bertel Jung started his work as the first town planning architect of Helsinki. He signed the first town plan for New Vallila in 1913, aiming at a clearly urban environment. Houses of three to four floors height were regulated by detailed facade schemes. Trees and greenery were respected in New stone Vallila and some blocks were built around private courtyards (Swedish name: storgårdskvarter). The biggest and most impressive of them is the block 555, started in 1916 as a company dwelling, and finished as a semi-communal project in 1929. The architects were Armas Lindgren and Bertel Liljequist. During the 1920s townscape was internationally in the spotlight, and Finnish architects followed keenly Nordic and German examples. They read and travelled a widely. Contacts with Swedish colleagues brought the peculiar dwelling type of landshövdingehus from Gothenburg to New Vallila. Italian architecture gave faith in the ever-lasting value of classicism.

KEYWORDS:

• Finland
• Helsinki
• 1920s classicism
• wooden architecture
• courtyard blocks
• affordable housing
• Bertel Jung
• Armas Lindgren
• Bertel Liljequist
• garden cities
• Camillo Sitte
• Housing Reform Association

Introduction

The paper highlights two examples of Finnish urban construction, town planning and affordable housing in 1900–1930. Secular architecture then developed from Art Nouveau into Functionalism through several steps towards ascetism. In this process the case of Old and New Vallila (Puu ja Uusi Vallila) offers the best example of how this process happened in Helsinki.

In the last decades of the nineteenth century, Helsinki grew beyond the boundaries of its existing town plan. Having served as the capital of the country since 1812, the city was facing new demands owing to strong industrialization. The population grew rapidly, from 29,000 in the first census conducted in 1870–136,000 by 1910.¹

The task of solving the housing shortage fell to the city: prior to the First World War, the legal obligations of municipalities were limited to zoning and building regulations, housing construction was left to private developers.

The city’s administration evolved, however. In 1908, Bertel Jung (1872–1946) took the helm as the city’s first town planning architect.² At the same time, a five-member TownPlanning Commission (kaupungin asemakaavatoimikunta) was set up, chaired by the head and rector of architecture department at the Helsinki University of Technology (Teknillinen Korkeakoulu), namely Gustaf Nyström (1856–1917). Helsinki was there when problems of town planning and housing construction were discussed in international conferences and comparative studies. New international ideas spread quickly, also thanks to internships or study trips of Finnish architects in the rest of the continent.

Facts were collected and statistics were compiled. In 1912, Einar Böök (1874–1957), secretary of the Helsinki Social Welfare Board (sosiaalilautakunta), published a profound study entitled Asuntokysymys Suomessa (The Housing Question in Finland). Following Finland’s independence (1917), Böök became the first director-in-chief of the National Board of Social Welfare, established in 1918. The Association for the Promotion of Public Housing had already been founded in 1910, and its original programme continues to this day under the name Asuntoreformiyhdistys (Housing Reform Association). Many active architects joined that society in the 1910s.

Set up as development corporations, several so-called garden cities purchased land near Helsinki along railway lines, or in the case of the East Helsinki suburb Kulosaari along a waterway. These enclaves met the needs and ideals of the well-heeled part of the population. Architects, engineers and businessmen had a decisive role in the founding (1907) and developing of 250 acres of Kulosaari, the so-called Brändö Villastad. That is why this island is the best-known ideal garden city in Finland of which first plan was designed by Lars Eliel Sonck (1870–1956). Many relevant architects of that time [e.g. Bertel Jung, Armas Lindgren (1874–1929), etc.] contributed in building a respectful area of admired villas and terraced houses, seldom forgotten in books of Finnish architecture.

Old Vallila

The city set out to solve the shortage of workers’ housing by planning a new residential area just outside its existing town plan, where a considerable number of both heavy and lighter industries had moved or had been established during the heady years of industrialization. It made sense for the workforce to live near the plants, close to the port and railway. The project commenced in 1907, when the Helsinki City Council (kaupunginvaltuusto) appointed a committee to study the question of ‘increasing the supply of inexpensive housing and disposing of land on terms that will ensure an increase in plot value for the benefit of the future municipality’.³

The committee report, completed in 1908, was of great importance to housing policy in Helsinki. In its appendices, it set out the town plan for the central-northern neighbourhood of Vallila, as well as building regulations and conditions for leasing plots.

The first plan for Vallila consisted of 22 blocks North-East of the railway line on the Sörnäinen waterfront, divided into small plots. The only wide street was a thoroughfare that crossed the site from south-east to north-west, reflecting the current alignment of Mäkelänkatu street. The plan comprised 212 residential plots of 300–400 sqm. However, delivery of the leases was delayed by the city’s lack of funds. By 1913, only 122 plots had been leased.⁴

That first plan, signed by Bertel Jung, is a composition set in a terrain of rocky outcrops. Its design comprises narrow blocks of varying length, each two blocks wide and set back-to-back, with a curving street extending from Teollisuuskatu to Mäkelänkatu cutting through the area. The houses are placed along the streets so that each has its own yard, outhouse, and vegetable garden, even on a small plot; the entrance is from the yard. No water pipes were installed in the houses of the first phase of the construction.

The city architect Karl Hård af Segerstad (1873–1931) drew up type designs for two-storey wooden houses with a mansard roof. Plots were leased by auction to independent builders and developers of rental houses. Construction started in 1910, and the first houses were completed soon after. When the First World War interrupted construction in autumn 1914, completion of the area was delayed until the next decade.

The plan was altered in the final phase to add another storey to most of the houses. The attic floor under the mansard roof in the first type drawings was replaced by a full residential floor under a gable roof. Most leases at this stage were assigned to workers’ housing companies or cooperatives set up to build flats for their members. The city supported their construction with low-interest loans.⁵

At the end of the decade, Puu-Vallila had 73 completed residential buildings and a population of a couple of thousand. Compared to other working-class dwellings, the flats in Vallila were basically light and their air clean. The original purpose of the careful planning was to raise Puu-Vallila into a class of its own, as an area of small single-family homes with gardens, but the severe housing shortage among the poor prevented the dream from being realized.

The most significant problem was caused by speculation in leases and rental dwellings. A housing inspection conducted in 1913 revealed that one-room dwellings in Vallila had an average of 3,98 occupants, and one in three dwellings had 6–10, which was possible when shift workers paid only for a place to sleep.

In this state of the things the city interventions took action. It set up a Social Welfare Board and entrusted it with the management of workers’ and housing matters. Helsinki was determined to learn from the problems in Old Vallila.

Demolition threat in the 1970s

By the 1970s, the wooden buildings in Old Vallila had fallen into disrepair. In keeping with the rationalist mindset of the day, their demolition was seen as a foregone conclusion, particularly since the leases were soon to expire. A new plan with apartment blocks had already been approved by the City Council in 1968.

Eventually, a tenacious campaign by residents for protection and restoration won the day. A survey of the building stock was conducted. A pilot project led by architect Heikki Pyykkö (1940 –) was carried out as part of the city’s housing programme, and it proved that renovation of the houses in Puu – Vallila would be cheaper than replacement. This in turn allowed the State Housing Board (asuntohallitus) to finance the renovation of the entire area with special state loans.

The final victory for the defenders of Puu-Vallila came when the City Council approved a conservation plan in autumn 1979 and decided to extend the land leases by 50 years. When the Act on the Improvement of Dwellings (asuntojen perusparannuslaki) came into force in 1985, Puu-Vallila was one of its pilot sites. Construction had begun in 1980 on both publicly and privately owned sites.

Old Vallila is today a beautiful reminder of the ideals of the garden city and of the traditional Nordic wooden town. Among the inspirations for the buildings were Swedish and German type-designed houses of the period. The buildings from the last construction phase contain many classicist features of Swedish origin; the façades, with their vertical cladding and simple trim around the windows, are eminently ‘Swedish’ in style. City officials and architects actively kept abreast of developments in administration and architecture in Sweden and continental Europe in particular. Architectural tourists sometimes pay their attention to how Finnish affordable housing in the 1920s followed both in the planning principles and in the façade’s language the so-called Swedish Grace according to the transfer in the architectural domain of the definition formulated by the British architect Morton Shand.⁶

In the twenty-first century, Old Vallila is a thriving example of how even an area of small wooden houses can be brought back to life, that small-scale and unassuming built heritage is valuable and viable.

New Vallila

First plans for the extension of the Vallila district were drawn up already in the 1910s on a new basis. The first plan, by Bertel Jung, was completed in 1913. However, it was not considered by the City Council until 1915, after an architectural competition to find new building types, which would have helped avoid the shortcomings discovered in the first phase of construction, failed to solve the problem. The variation of suggested house types was wide but none of the proposals were accepted.

Jung’s plan for extension was approved in 1915. New Vallila was to have nine residential blocks comprising 128 plots. Of these, 104 were earmarked for small residential buildings and 24 for stone houses. The plots of the wooden houses were clustered around an area designated as a park, while the taller stone houses were sited along the main thoroughfares, Sturenkatu and Mäkelänkatu. In the new plan, Old and New Vallila were separated by Sturenkatu, a 22-metre-wide street crossing Mäkelänkatu.

The plan also designated plots for a church and a school, signalling the new neighbourhood as one of importance in the city. Another such indicator was the lease period of the plots in New Vallila, which was set at a minimum of 50 and a maximum of 60 years.

Plots no. 554 and 555 in the new plan are particularly notable as regards the search for new types of residential buildings. The Social Welfare Board had previously proposed that no. 555 be developed in accordance with Jung’s plan to consist of small-detached houses, each for a maximum of three families, whereas plot no. 554 would have ‘so-called terraced houses, i.e. single-family homes joined together in rows, each with its own yard’. The reason for the recommendation was that row houses had proved a good solution in England, the Netherlands, northern Germany, Denmark ‘and more recently even in Sweden’.⁷

Finally, no row houses were built in Vallila. In 1916, the design and construction of block no. 555 was taken over by the Kone  – ja Siltarakennus Oy (Maskin  – och Brobyggnads Ab) engineering company. It was a pioneer company in the Finnish metal industry (wagons, ships, ammunition, etc.) and then was one of the largest employers in the city, with an eight-hectare factory area along Sörnäisten Rantatie. When the First World War broke out, Kone ja Silta received large orders for munitions from the Russian government. The company’s production grew exceptionally large from 1914–1917, and dwellings were urgently needed to meet the needs of its growing workforce.

Kone ja Silta was directed from 1911 on by Carl Enckell (1876–1959), a prominent figure in the process of international acceptation on Finland's independence 1917. In 1918, he was appointed Minister for Foreign Affairs. Armas Lindgren was his friend and served as the company’s architect in several projects (Figure 1–15).

Figure 1. Map of Kulosaari, 1920 [A.B. Lilius & Hertzberg O.Y., 8B1AB85A, Helsinki City Museum Archive].

Figure 2. Extract of the map of the Helsinki environment, 1929 [National Library of Finland] Old and New Vallila are located in the blue circle, while the island of Kulosaari in the green one.

Figure 3. Bertel Jung, Proposal for the division of the city in the Vallila area, 1908 [HKPA 14/1908 Annex V, Helsinki City Museum Archive].

Figure 4. Typical street view of Old Vallila from the street Vallilantie, 1913 [Photo by Erik Sundström, HKM:KA, Helsinki City Museum Archive].

Figure 5. View from Puu-Vallila on the spring 1976. On the left, the courtyards of the wooden houses on Vanajantie 8-10, on the right, the courtyards of Keuruuntie 11–13 [Photo by Simo Rista, hkm.C4885585, Helsinki City Museum Archive].

Figure 6. In the foreground Old Wooden Vallila, while in the background new stone Vallila and Saint Paul's Church, 1975. [Photo by Sky-Foto Möller, 2F7D974D, Helsinki City Museum Archive].

Figure 7. Bertel Jung, Proposal for the extension of the Vallila area, 1913 [HKPA 54/1915 Annex I – Detail, Helsinki City Museum Archive].

Figure 8. Lindgren and Liljequist, Proposal for first floor of the block no. 555, 1917 [MFA Museum of Finnish Architecture].

Figure 9. Lindgren and Liljequist, Proposal of the façade along Somerontie of the block no. 555, 1917 [MFA Museum of Finnish Architecture].

Figure 10. Lindgren and Liljequist, Perspective of the entire block no. 555, 1999 [MFA Museum of Finnish Architecture].

Figure 11. Option 1 The courtyard of the workers’ block no. 555 of the so-called Kone – ja Silta Oy, 1969 [Photo by Kari Hakli, hkm.229D3E9A, Helsinki City Museum Archive].

Figure 12. The courtyard of the block no. 555, 2022 [Photo by Chiara Monterumisi].

Figure 13. Bird-view of Vallila: the block no. 555 built in two phases surrounded by other courtyard blocks, and Saint Paul church, 1965 [Photo by H. Stenberg, hkm.85196F8F, Helsinki City Museum Archive].

Figure 14. The courtyard, which extends over the whole block, is surrounded from the left by a courtyard, 1931 [Photo by E. Koponen, hkm.561995AE, Helsinki City Museum Archive].

Figure 15. Mäkelänkatu 43. The municipal apartment buildings by Gunnar Taucher, 1928 [Photo by Atelier Apollo, hkm.664EB10E, Helsinki City Museum Archive].

The design of block no. 555 in Vallila was entrusted to the office of Armas Lindgren and Bertel Liljequist (1883–1954). A great number of sketches for this block survive in Lindgren’s papers.⁸ The early sketches show small houses in either stone or timber, but calculations written in the corners of the sketch papers indicate an insufficient number of dwellings. The first proper version was a three-storey stone house of apartments surrounding the plot, and its castle-like appearance also seems to have pleased the developer. This plan was chosen as the basis for further design.⁹

The city too looked favourably upon the large perimeter block (in Swedish storgårdskvarter), a very important reformation of the previous tenement buildings. This typology of improved qualities found its way to Finnish planning initiatives, mainly from Sweden, Denmark and Germany but also the rest of Europe with certain local peculiarities.¹⁰

The only requirement of the large perimeter block was that a space be reserved for a hedge between the building and the street, on all four sides. The building has a frame depth of 11–12 metres. Access to the yard is from the middle of each flank. The drawing includes two rectangular buildings in the middle of the open yard, one with a combined sauna and laundry room, the other combining a library, reading room and nursery.

The dwelling layouts were developed over many drawings. Social Welfare Board praised the solutions exemplary compared with single-room dwellings which still dominated working-class housing in Helsinki.

Lindgren and Liljequist’s office was still designing the working-class housing scheme enabled by the wartime boom in 1917 when Finland earned its independence and the output of Kone ja Silta took a sharp downturn. In the working drawings, the floor plans and level of amenities were reduced, and construction began only on an L-shaped section at the corner of Kangasalantie and Somerontie. The floor area of the dwellings was reduced from what had been planned. The main drawings for the block as a whole and for one outbuilding were approved by the Local Register Office on 14 June 1917. In August 1918, approval was sought and obtained from the office to construct the laundry room not in the yard but in the basement of the building along Anjalantie street.

The block was well regarded and even featured in the exhibition of the first Finnish housing conference held in late 1917, even though only a quarter of the building was then under construction.

A perspective drawing signed in 1919 presents an artistic interpretation of the block. The picture was published in the daily newspaper Hufvudstadsbladet¹¹, across three columns, even though construction was not going well. Finally, this marked the end of the engineering company’s role in the construction of the block.

The first semi-municipal construction company was founded by the city in 1924, and Helsinki City Construction Company No. 3 was established in April 1927. Under the latter’s name, the city decided to construct a building in the northern part of block no. 555; it would have 116 dwelling rooms as well as premises for the city. The following year, the city set out to construct another building with 66 dwellings consisting of a room and a kitchen and six dwellings of two rooms and a kitchen. Space would be reserved for the city’s various needs and for two shops. From the sketch stage forwards, the drawings for this phase of construction were signed by Lindgren with his own name. The office of Lindgren & Liljequist had been dissolved.

From a townscape perspective, it is worth noting that Lindgren abandoned the castle-like unity and sought instead to give a distinctive look for each new section of the large block. The still unbuilt part on Kangasalantie continued the theme set out in 1918. While the axial symmetry of street façades remained intact, Lindgren added a decorative element to every third window axis on the façade facing Anjalantie. Special attention was lavished on the Sammatintie side, presumably because Bertil Liljequist was just then designing the church of St. Paul (1929–1931) across the street after winning its architectural competition in 1928.

After trying out various solutions with colour pencils, Lindgren decided to elevate and accentuate the central part of the tall façade right across Liljequist's church. This elegant solution fulfilled the idea which Jung had had right from the start of designing the area.

The crucial idea in the block 555 was to have no fences dividing the shared open courtyard inside, and as soon as the last section was completed in 1929, the yard was established according to a plan drawn up by Armas Lindgren and garden consultant Elisabeth Koch (1891–1982). Koch was a talented pioneer of Finnish garden architecture. In this case the garden plan structures the courtyard beautifully in line with the coeval much-admired yards in the perimeter blocks of Copenhagen built for example by Kay Fisker (1893–1965), Povl Baumann (1878–1963), Henning Hansen (1880–1945) among the many. The nearest exemplars abroad were the three-storey Landshövdingehus¹² blocks in Gothenburg. Both Koch and Lindgren followed actively both Swedish and Danish architecture, towns’ plans and houses, as well as gardening.¹³

Bertel Jung and the harmonious townscape

The value of New Vallila for urban development in Finland is not limited to the excellence of just a few individual blocks. The entire area is dominated by calm, dignified classicism. A harmonious and restrained townscape bordering on the austere was a Nordic ideal the newly independent Finland was determined to adopt. The young republic wanted its visual identity to convey a sense of its ties to the other Nordic countries. This argument was vigorously put forward even in the development of the standardization of building components.

Politics aside, another major factor in construction is climate, especially in the case of residential architecture. When national standards were being developed in Finland in the 1920s, building design handbooks and even committee reports from Sweden were used as references.

Harmonious townscape was a widely shared ideal in Europe ever since Camillo Sitte’s book Der Städtebau nach seinen künstlerischen Grundsätzen (City Planning According to Artistic Principles) published in 1889. The new planning ideas caught on in Finland when Bertel Jung, then working in Lars Sonck’s office, came across the Swedish architect Fredrik Sundbärg’s article on Sitte in the Swedish magazine Ord och Bild (1897).¹⁴ Jung showed the piece to Sonck, on whom it had an ‘instantaneous effect of a spark in a barrel of gunpowder’. In 1898, Sonck wrote an article entitled ‘Modern Vandalism: the Helsinki Town Plan’, published in Teknikern magazine and Finsk Tidskrift. As Jung put it, Sitte’s ideas had at the time ‘the compelling force of a revelation’.

An authority in urban planning who has remained in Sitte’s shadow was Werner Hegemann (1881–1936).¹⁵ He made his career in Germany, South America and the United States. Hegemann’s influence as a ‘prophet’ of the coherent urban landscape was strongest in later decades, even though as early as 1910 he served as secretary general of the great town planning exhibition in Berlin as well as editor of its influential books. In 1923, Hegemann served as editor of the English catalogue for the International City and Town Planning exhibition arranged by the IFTHP association within the Jubilee event in Gothenburg (1923)¹⁶, which was hugely important in all Nordic countries. The soul of the exhibition was Albert Lilienberg (1879–1967), the director and engineer of the Gothenburg Town Planning Office.

Lilienberg was the closest authority for Finns in the development of housing (notably the landshövdingehus) and residential zoning. Otto I. Meurman (1890–1994), Finland’s first town planning professor, said in a 1975 interview that a study trip to Lilienberg’s office in Gothenburg in 1919 provided the most important lesson for his future work as planner in Finland. Lilienberg’s weight stemmed from the scale of his designs, which was modest and thus suitable for Finland. By contrast, German planning focused on the problems of big cities, Meurman explained.¹⁷

The Nordic classicism of New Vallila is particularly vivid in the perspectives along Mäkelänkatu and Sturenkatu. The municipal residential buildings are three or four storeys high, their façade patterns are disciplined, windows remain flush with the surface, detailing is scant. The high point on Mäkelänkatu is a three-part municipal housing scheme designed by city architect Gunnar Taucher (1886–1941), which acquires its solemn look from the gate flanked by massive columns on its retracted central section.

This monumental solution is explained by the fact that at the time of its construction, the plan was to have a new street across from Mäkelänkatu end in a T-junction at this gate.

There are two large perimeter blocks on Sturenkatu: Eura at no. 37–41 was designed by Jussi (1906–1962) and Toivo Paatela (1890–1962) and was completed in 1920, and at no. 40 a block designed by Martti Välikangas (1893–1973), completed in 1926.

Conclusions

In Finland, the classicist townscapes of the 1920s were made possible by the parallel development of social housing production and of the practices and bureaucracy of town planning. However, the aesthetic values of the harmonious townscape were exhausted quite early on, in the boom years of the late 1920s. The combined impact of construction sector crippled by economic hardship and the new urban ideal adopted along with functionalism effectively put an end to it in the next decade.

Without too much exaggeration, I should like to say that uniform, harmonious townscapes were created by popes in the sixteenth century, by powerful monarchs in the seventeenth century, rulers and nobility in the 18th and 19th centuries and emerging local democratic governments in the twentieth century.

Acknowledgements

The author does thank Tomi Snellman for the English translation and Chiara Monterumisi for wonderful assistance and patience.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Riitta Nikula

Riitta Nikula, PhD and Emerita Professor of Art history. She was Professor at the University of Helsinki (1994–2007). Between 1988 and 1994, she was Head of Research and Deputy director at the Museum of Finnish Architecture. Since her Doctor’s thesis 1981 at the University of Helsinki (Ythenäinen kaupunkikuva 1900-1930: Suomalaisen kaupunkirakentamisen ihanteista ja päämääristä, esimerkkeinä Helsingin Etu-Töölö ja Uusi Vallila / Harmonious Townscape 1900-1930. On the ideals and aims of urban construction in Finland. Etu-Töölö and Uusi Vallila in Helsinki as examples) her research interests focused on Finnish twentieth century town planning and social housing. Among her extensive critical production translated in several languages, she published monographs on Armas Lindgren (1988) and Erik Bryggmann (1991) as well two history books on Finnish architecture (Architecture and Landscape 1993, Wood, Stone and Steel 2005). Her latest book (2014, only in Finnish) is Suomalainen rivitalo: työväenasunnosta keskiluokan unelmaksi [The Finnish Rowhouse 1900-1960. From working-class housing to middle-class dream]. A new edition of the Focus on Finnish twentieth Century Architecture and Town Planning. Collected papers was published 2023.

Notes

1 For a thorough overview of the Helsinki development and social history, see: Åström. Samhällsplanering och regionsbildning i kejsartidens Helsinfors, 1810–1910; Waris, Työläisyhteiskunnan syntyminen .

2 For an extensive analysis, see: Nikula. “Bertel Jung: Pioneer of Modern Town Planning in Helsinki”, 44–67.

3 Helsinki City Council (Helsingin Kaupunginvaltuusto) Protocol 14/1908, add. 5.

4 Martinsen. “Puu-Vallila Helsingin asuntopolitiikan vaiheissa’ 100–112; Salokorpi, “Puu-Vallilan arkkitehtuuri”, 4–6.

5 See Silfverberg, Puu-Vallilan vaiheita.

6 Morton Shand, “Stockholm 1930”, 69. For a thorough anthology of the Swedish architectural outcomes, see: Elmlund, Mårtelius (eds.) Swedish Grace. While for deepening the reception of the definition across the decades, see Monterumisi. “Swedish Grace”.

7 Nikula, Yhtenäinen kaupunkikuva 1900–1930. Suomalaisen kaupunkirakentamisen ihanteista ja päämääristä esimerkkeinä Helsingin Etu-Töölö ja Uusi Vallila [Harmonious Townscape 1900–1930. On the ideals and aims of urban construction in Finland, Etu-Töölö and Uusi Vallila of Helsinki as examples], 233–267.

8 All the items are now stored in the archives of the Helsinki Museum of Architecture.

9 For widening the contribution of the architect, see Nikula, Armas Lindgren 1874–1929, arkkitehti architect.

10 A thorough investigation of this typology across Europe was conducted in the Nordic critics realm. It is the case of the Ph.D. thesis (1974) of the Swedish historian Björn Linn. Among the relevant Finnish cases, he underscored the Vallila estate, see Storgårdskvarteret, 239–242.

11 It was founded by in 1864 by the initiative of August Schauman. During the late 19th century, it was the highest-circulation Swedish-language newspaper in Finland.

12 A thorough investigation of a such typology can be found in: Caldenby. Landshövdingehus: typiskt göteborgskt!

13 See Karisto, Koivunen, Karisto. Kysykää Essiltä! Elisabeth Kochin puutarhat.

14 Sundbärg. “Om stadsplaner med särskild hänsyn”, 145–160.

15 For a detailed investigation see: Crasemann Collins, Werner Hegemann and the Search.

16 The countries of which delegations participated were: Austria, Belgium, British Empire, Czecho-Slovakia, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Holland, Japan, Leetonia, Norway, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United stated of America.

17 Otto-I. Meurman, interview by Riitta Nikula, 28 May 1975.