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ABSTRACT
This comparative study on urban planning in Kouang-Tchéou-Wan (Guangzhou Wan) and Swatow (Shantou) in the first half of the twentieth century can offer insights into the dialogue between colonial and historic cities. Kouang-Tchéou-Wan and Swatow are cities that features ‘collaboration’ – between the government and local elites in urban modernization. This collaboration significantly impacted the adaptation and expression of urban planning in new temporal and spatial environments. The collaboration occurred in ‘underdeveloped public domains’, including public institutions and spaces. This study confidently offers the following conclusions. First, negotiation plays an essential role in ‘collaboration’: the Municipal Council is identified as the primary organization responsible for negotiations; realism, project feasibility, and mutual interests are the main themes of these negotiations. Second, ‘collaboration’ can create irreconcilable contradictions in the landscape, which can be seen as the result of specific historical contexts: the struggle for discourse in public spaces and the transition from spatial zoning to new class categorizations. This study further discusses necessary conditions for a dialogue between colonial and historical cities: being at a similar ‘nation-locality’ transformation stage, such as decentralization from the state to the localities; close communication within regional societies; similar local social environments and urban development foundations.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes
1 Ward, “Transnational Planners in a Postcolonial World”; Healey and Upton, Crossing Borders.
2 Chopra, A Joint Enterprise.
3 Hein, The Routledge Handbook of Planning History.
4 Njoh, French Urbanism in Foreign Lands.
5 Sanyal, Comparative Planning Cultures.
6 Esherick, Chinese Local Elites.
7 ‘Administrative public sphere’ refers to ‘the public sphere’ formed by the activities of elites. These activities are largely confined to handling local affairs that the national bureaucratic system struggles to manage owing to weak governance. As Kon Fei Li puts it, ‘It is merely a supplement to official governance’, and is not related to rights.
8 Schoppa, Chinese Elites and Political Change.
9 Esherick, “Modernity and Nation in the Chinese.”
10 Lefort and Thompson, The Political Forms of Modern Society.
11 Tsin, “Canton Remapped”; Esherick, “Modernity and Nation in the Chinese.”
12 Chopra, A Joint Enterprise.
13 Sit, Chinese City and Urbanism.
14 China’s traditional ‘centralist’ spatial order means ‘Jiu Zhou’, the concept of national region of Chinese Han ancestors since ancient times.
15 Tsin, “Canton Remapped.”
16 Shen, A “Lost” Republic.
17 Cook, “Reimagining China.”
18 Xu, Practice and Enlightenment of Municipal.
19 Zheng, The Modern Swatow in History.
20 Brocheux and Hémery, Indochine, la colonization ambiguë.
21 ‘Cultural Assimilation’ included making the local population adopt the French culture, language, and lifestyle, stemming from France’s early colonial ideology of a ‘Civilizing Mission’ and based on the belief that French colonies were indivisible parts of metropolitan France.
22 Grupp, “Gabriel Hanotaux.”
23 Larcher-Goscha, La voie étroite des réformes colonials.
24 ‘Association policy’ became the dominant colonial policy in the twientieth century, founded on the connection between the local population and French culture, rather than assimilating them the former to the cultural standards of the metropolis.
25 Vannière, Le territoire à bail de Guangzhouwan.
26 Lan Jin’s concept of ‘elite activism’, Luo Wei Lian’s ‘social activism’, and Shi Te Lan’s ‘civil activism’ respectively discussed the autonomous activities of elites in the Zhejiang, Hankou, and Beijing regions, respectively.
27 Rankin, Elite Activism and Political Transormation.
28 Xu and Wu, “Bu and Xu: Commercial.”
29 Zheng, The Modern Swatow in History.
30 Langshi, Nationalism in a Changing Local.
31 Vannière, Le territoire à bail de Kwang.
32 Zheng, The Modern Swatow in History.
33 Cook, “Reimagining China: Xiamen.”
34 This highlights that a congregation phenomenon was brought about by new knowledge after successful practice and describes how and why planning knowledge flows between and within nations.
35 Purkarthofer and Granqvist, “Soft Spaces as a Traveling.”
36 United Nations Human Settlements Programme. “Global Report on Human Settlements.”
37 Ward, “International Diffusion.”
38 Ganapati and Verma, “Institutional Biases in the International Diffusion.”
39 Friedmann, “Crossing Borders: Do Planning Ideas Travel.”
40 Wagner, “Facilitating Planning Communication.”
41 Ward, “Transnational Planners in a Postcolonial.”
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43 Niu, “A Study on Chinese Planning.”
44 Nasr and Volait, Urbanism.
45 Nedovic-Budic, Heumann, and Olshansky, The Globalization of Planning.
46 Hein, “Crossing Boundaries: The Global.”
47 King, Urbanism, Colonialism, and the World-Economy.
48 King, Colonial Urban Development.
49 Vainer, “Disseminating ‘Best Practice’?”
50 Volait, “Making Cairo Modern”; Nasr and Volait, Urbanism.
51 Urban Planning Society of China, History of Urban and Rural.
52 Roy and Ong. Worlding Cities: Asian.
53 French colonial planning diffusion was driven by French global hegemony and the criticism of France’s ‘rigid’ colonial policies and planning influenced French colonial planning diffusion in the first half of the twentieth century.
54 This includes frameworks for the transfer of transnational, trans-provincial/state, trans-city, and trans-district thinking, describing voluntary, coercive, and intermediary degrees of transfer, including the actors in the transfer, the content transferred, and the degree and tools of transfer.
55 Hoyt, “Importing Ideas.”
56 Shen, The Formation of Modern Urban.
57 Vacher, “From mise a valeur to cooperation.”
58 Cooper, “Urban Planning and Architecture.”
59 Doumer, L’Indo-Chine française (souvenirs).
60 Njoh, French Urbanism in Foreign.
61 Cooper, “Urban Planning and Architecture.”
62 Bonningue, La France à Kouang-Tchéou-Wan.
63 Indochine française. Service de La Garde. Annuaire Administratif de L’Indochine, Impr. d’Extrême-Orient (Hanoi), 1926.
64 Avermaete, “Death of the Author.”
65 Kang, Li, and Zhang, “Dissemination of Planning Knowledge.”
66 Niu, “A Study on Chinese Planning.”
67 Nasr and Volait, Urbanism.
68 Chopra, A Joint Enterprise: Indian.
69 Sorensen, “Urbanization, Institutional Change.”
70 Haizhong and Ting, Local Merchant Gentry.
71 Ibid., Local Merchant Gentry.
72 Liangshi, “Plan and Report: Zhongshan.”
73 Wang Yuruo, who belonged to Chao’an County, Guangdong, was a Qing Dynasty graduate and later studied in Japan at the Tokyo Tongwen Institute. Before becoming Swatow’s municipal hall director, he served in various roles in Fujian and Guangdong, including as a high school principal and county magistrate.
74 Chen Liangshi, from Dongguan County, Guangdong, studied at Fudan University in Shanghai, Peking University, and later in the United States, obtaining a master’s degree in civil engineering and Municipal Engineering from Cornell University. A member of the China Science Society, he belonged to the Engineering Sciences Group’s Civil Engineering Stock with bridge expert, Mao Yisheng and architect Liang Sicheng. His writings include ‘Water and Sanitary Cleanliness’, ‘Urban Water Supply’, and ‘Swatow’s Public Works Construction Over the Past Year’.
75 Xu, Practice, and Enlightenment of Municipal.
76 The mayor combines administrative, legislative, and judicial powers.
77 Qiong, “Study on Swatow Modern.”
78 Liangshi, “Plan and Report: Zhongshan.”
79 Cooper, “Urban Planning and Architecture.”
80 Xu and Wu, “Bu and Xu: Commercial.”
81 Indochine française. Service de La Garde. Annuaire Administratif de L’Indochine, Impr. d’Extrême-Orient (Hanoi), 1926.
82 Vannière, Le territoire à bail de Kwang.
83 Michel, Code judiciaire de l'’Indo-Chine.
84 Kasmi, “The Plan as a Colonization Project.”
85 Wu, “Building Modern Spaces.”
86 Wei, “Da Guangzhou Wan.”
87 Vanniere, “Urbanisation et transformations socio-économiques”; Wang, “Guangzhouwan History and Culture.”
88 Michel, Code judiciaire.
89 Guowei, “An Analysis of the Organizational Structure.”
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92 Haizhong, Ting, Local Merchant Gentry.
93 Schrameier. China’s Land System (Trans. X. Zheng). Land Administration Monthly, 1194 1171.
94 Ouyang and Shi, Arcades and Road: Urban.
95 Ibid.
96 Malverti and Picard, “Algeria: Military Genius.”
97 Administration du territoire de Quang-tchéou (1900), Organization administrative du territoire (1900).
98 Njoh, French Urbanism in Foreign.
99 Michel, Code judiciaire de l’Indo-Chine.
100 Wang, “A Glimpse of Guangzhou wan.”
101 Wu, “Multiple Narratives of Oral.”
102 Vannière, Le territoire à bail de Kwang.
103 Peng and Xiaochuan. Arcade System and Urban.
104 Tung, “Chikan’s Arcade Buildings.”
105 Haizhong and Ting, Local Merchant Gentry.
106 Qiong. “Study on Swatow Modern.
107 Wei, “Da Guangzhou Wan.”
108 Tché-kam District Cultural Press and Publication Bureau of Zhanjiang City. ‘Tché-kam Ancient Commercial.’
109 For example, laws on poor housing, building houses for the poor, improvement of houses for the poor through taxation, and lending city funds to housing construction societies.
110 Haizhong and Ting, Local Merchant Gentry.
111 Ouyang, “The Shape of Spatial Form.”
112 Xiao, “Plan: Proposal and Plan.”
113 Langshi, “Clan and Revolution: The Political.”
114 Zhiwen, “Cultural Contact and Exchange”; Wang, Guangzhouwan History and Culture.
115 Wu, “Multiple Narratives of Oral.”
116 Xu and Ziqi, “Bu and Xu: Commercial.”
117 Vanniere, “Urbanisation et transformations socio-économiques”; Wang, Guangzhouwan History and Culture.
Additional information
Notes on contributors
Yi Liu
Yi Liu is a Ph.D. candidate in the Department of Architecture at the Southeast University, with a Designated Emphasis in Urban Planning History and Heritage Conservation.
Baihao Li
Baihao Li is a professor in the Department of Architecture at the Southeast University, with a Designated Emphasis in Urban Planning History and Heritage Conservation.
Congcong Yao
Congcong Yao is a Ph.D. candidate in the Department of Architecture at the Southeast University, with a Designated Emphasis in Urban Planning History and Heritage Conservation.