Learning How to Learn and Assessment for Learning: a theoretical inquiry

Abstract

This paper stems from the ESRC TLRP Learning How to Learn—in Classrooms, Schools and Networks Project, and explores how Assessment for Learning (AfL) relates, conceptually, to learning how to learn (LHTL). The term LHTL was intended to draw attention to a primary focus on learning practices, and we have related the processes of AfL to LHTL. A third and more common term ‘learning to learn’ (L2L) has recently come to the fore in the teaching and learning practices of schools. This paper explores the relationships between all three, in three main sections. First, the meaning of the concept LHTL is explored. This is approached initially using the analysis of Dearden, followed by an exploration of the links with other research in the literature on learning. This exploration examines the construct L2L and argues against its implication that there is a distinct capacity with generality of application across all forms of learning. The second section considers the ways in which teachers and schools might give more priority to pupils’ capacity to LHTL, drawing on some research projects that demonstrate improved pupil outcomes, and hence support the rationale for the emphasis on learning practices. The third section examines the problem of assessing LHTL. An attempt to construct an instrument to assess LHTL did not succeed, but did serve to expose both the practical and the theoretical problems in characterizing pupils as having ‘learned how to learn’. The overall conclusion is that emphasis should be placed on practices that have potential to promote autonomy in learning, a common theme in the literature at all levels, and one reflected in our empirical work on teachers’ attitudes and practices.

Keywords:

• Assessment
• Learning autonomy
• Learning How to Learn
• Learning practices
• Strategies

Notes

1. Throughout this article, the initials L2L are used as an acronym for learning to learn, and LHTL for learning how to learn, the different meanings of which will become evident as the argument develops.

2. See http://www.campaignforlearning.org.uk/pdf/L2L/LearningWorkingGroup.pdf for a summary.

3. See: http://www.iea.nl/fileadmin/user_upload/administrative_docs/46th_GA/EU_Lifelong_Learning _Policies.ppt#424,20,Learning to Learn skills.

4. For example, it is rarely found as a topic or in the index of books on learning.

5. Wood (1998), for example, only uses the term ‘self‐regulation’ to cover these kinds of elements, drawing on Vygotsky and the idea of ‘inner dialogue’.

6. This is explained by Feuerstein’s idea of ‘cultural deprivation’ of some learners, who require enrichment; cited by Shayer (2003, p. 481).

7. The principles of group work can be found on the SPRinG web site: http://creict.homerton.cam.ac.uk/spring/princip.doc.

8. It has a strong Piagetian approach and emphasizes concrete preparation of pupils to understand the problem tackled, cognitive conflict to challenge thinking about the problem, metacognition to reflect on the problem‐solving process and bridging from other examples to the context in question.

9. See the research briefing at: http://www.tlrp.org/pub/documents/BlatchfordRBFinal_001.pdf.

10. The practices developed from this work have been turned into workshop materials for teachers by the LHTL Project team (see James et al., 2006, and the associated web site http://www.learntolearn.ac.uk).