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Abstract
Academies (and free schools) in England and independent grant-aided schools, fristående skolor (or friskolor), in Sweden have been the subject of much academic debate, but there is a paucity of comparative research relating to policy development or outcomes. This paper adopts a comparative perspective, outlining the historical context, then comparing the policy goals and development of the two programmes from their inception. It is argued that the policy goals of the two programmes are underpinned by similar ideologies, but the policy outcomes have differed in terms of the extent and type of ‘privatisation’. Two broad themes related to equality of opportunity are then explored: access to schools, and school composition and segregation. It is argued that the extent to which differential school access and segregation can be attributed to the introduction of independent schools in Sweden and academies in England, is far from clear; it would be wrong to assume that there is a single, simple explanation.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank the Swedish officials who agreed to be interviewed: this paper has benefited enormously from their contributions. Thanks also to Elizabeth Bailey, Audrey Hind, Philip Noden, Mikael Alexandersson and Ian Craig for their assistance.
Notes
1. The school leaving age increased to 16 in 1972. From 2015, participation in education and training will be compulsory until 18.
2. Church schools could opt for increased state funding and control by local education authorities (LEAs) as ‘voluntary-controlled schools’ or reduced state support and more independence (including control over pupil admissions) as ‘voluntary-aided schools’ (see Allen and West Citation2011).
3. Very few technical schools were introduced (Gordon, Aldrich, and Dean Citation1991).
4. Alexandersson (Citation2011) identifies three dimensions to the notion of equivalence: entry (equal access to schooling), stay (equal learning opportunities in school) and exit (equal academic and social outcomes). These three elements are similar to those identified with respect to ‘equality of opportunity’ (see West and Nikolai Citation2013).
5. If a proposition is passed it results in an amendment to the relevant piece of legislation, in this case the Education Act 1985:1100.
6. Schools owned by corporations or stock market companies are vulnerable to the vagaries of the market and closure: e.g. in 2013, JB Education decided to sell 19 of its high schools and close down eight others: this was because the Danish private equity group Axcel, which bought the chain in 2008, decided it could no longer continue to cover the company’s losses (The Guardian Citation2013).
7. In England, around 7% of children attend fee-charging independent schools, some of which were historically known as ‘public schools’.
8. The School Standards and Framework Act 1998 abolished grant-maintained status: schools were designated as one of three new types of school – community, voluntary (aided and controlled) and foundation. Grant-maintained schools became, in the main, foundation schools with schools that had previously been voluntarily returning to voluntary status.
9. Following the 2000 Learning and Skills Act and the 2002 Education Act.
10. CTCs also started converting to academies.
11. As are other school types including CTCs and voluntary schools (see West and Bailey Citation2013).
12. Prior to 1 April 2009 LEAs were the bodies responsible for the local administration of state sector education services. The statutory duties of LEAs are now undertaken by the Director of Children’s Services within each Local Authority district (ONS Citation2013).
13. Lubienski (Citation2013) note that in the US many charter schools, especially those for profit avoid areas with the highest need.
14. Pupils who have completed their final year of compulsory education and have pass grades in Swedish/Swedish as a second language, English, mathematics and at least five other subjects can apply for upper secondary school vocational programmes; pupils must have a pass grade in at least nine subjects in addition to Swedish, English and mathematics (Regeringskansliet Citation2013).
15. According to the 2010 Education Act ‘The teaching at independent schools … must be non-confessional. The education in more general terms at independent schools … may have a confessional orientation. The participation in confessional elements must be voluntary’.
16. Whilst Tony Blair was Prime Minister, there was a strong encouragement of religious schools (Walford Citation2008).
17. For example, in one study pupils from minority groups attending segregated schools expressed a desire to know if they were speaking ‘proper’ Swedish or behaving ‘properly’, which they felt that daily contact with ethnic Swedish pupils could provide (see Bunar Citation2010).