The curriculum redefined: learning to think ‐‐ thinking to learn

Abstract

This paper reviews recent research and publications on the topic of ‘the teaching of thinking’. Its structure is summarized here in the form of a series of questions. Section 1 introduces two basic questions: ‘Can thinking be taught'; and if so, ‘How might this best be done?’ There are reasonable grounds for believing that we can improve the efficiency of thinking by appropriate teaching; but the issue of what is ‘appropriate teaching’ is far from being settled. Section 2 reviews the historical background: ‘What influences have shaped the developing idea of teaching thinking?’ It is not a new idea. The section traces the changing influences of ideas from psychology, philosophy, literature and language, and information technology. Section 3 asks: ‘Why the current explosion of interest in the topic?’ Social changes have created awareness of a need; advances in cognitive psychology and information technology have opened up possibilities of meeting that need. The section also outlines current developments in the teaching of thinking in OECD countries and in North America. In Section 4, different methods and approaches are reviewed, distinguishing two main categories: (a) programmes or books specifically designed to teach thinking skills or procedures that can be applied generally; (b) thinking that is inherent in subject domains (like mathematics or science), encouraged through the infusion of thinking into the teaching of these established subjects and, it is to be hoped, applied more generally. Section 5, on evaluation, asks: ‘What evidence is there to support the claims that thinking can be taught by various methods?’ Section 6 identifies emerging trends, three aspects which are attracting interest currently in research and development on this topic: the radical change implied for pedagogical style and the teacher's role; assessment, how to test critical thinking; disposition, the motivational aspects of thinking, the wish to use the skills of thinking, the influence of culture. Section 7 discusses two main issues: recent work on the transfer of training; and the relative value of ‘separate courses’ and ‘infusion’ of thinking throughout the curriculum. Three Appendices list selected examples of recent publications and programmes on teaching thinking.

John Nisbet is Honorary Senior Research Fellow at the University of Aberdeen, and Peter Davies was until recently on the staff of the OECD Centre for Educational Research and Innovation in Paris. This paper was prepared for an international conference on the teaching of thinking (OECD, Paris, 11‐13 July 1989) and is published with permission from OECD/ CERI. A grant from the Spencer Foundation of Chicago is gratefully acknowledged.